Wordmarks for UT and College of Liberal Arts

Winfred P. Lehmann, Director :: PCL 5.112, 1 University Station S5490 :: Austin, TX 78712 :: 512-471-4566

Proto-Indo-European Syntax

Winfred P. Lehmann

Appendix B

Index

Hymn and stanza numbers for Rigvedic citations and line numbers for other citations are in bold-face type; page references are in roman type.

-a (Hitt.). See -i ̯a, -a (Hitt.)
-a (marker of mass nouns), 72, 202. See also -h
Ablative, 42, 44, 47, 191, 195
- as starting point of action, 46
Ablaut: use of, to express aspects, 176
Absolute constructions, 22, 210-211
Accent, PIE
- loss of, in finite verbs and vocatives, 50
- maintained on verb in subordinate clauses, 50-51
- marks subordination, 100, 136
Accusative, 42, 47, 191, 193-194
Adjectival lexical units, 231-232
Adjective
- functioning like substantive modified by relative construction, 37-38
- in marked constructions, 69
- in PIE, 208
- as reduced relative construction, 16, 38
- weak, in Slavic, Baltic, and Germanic, 63, 245-246
Adverbial
- elements in IE sentences, 44-48, 213-214
- lexical units, 232-233
Affixes in IE inflectional system, 152
Agent, 11, 47-48, 78, 191
- in passive constructions, 48, 191
agnídh- (Skt.), 76, 77
Agreement rules, 13, 69-73
agricola (Lat.), 69
agriókhoiros (Gk.), 76
Aitareya Braḥmāna (AB). See Sanskrit: examples
akkušk- (Hitt.), 147
Aktionsart, 97
allá (Gk.), 153
Allen, W. S.
- on affixes in PIE, 236
- on change of accent in Greek, 249
Alliterative verse, Germanic
- contributions of, to knowledge of intonation, 25
- conventions of, 51-52
amāns (Lat.), 70, 208
Ambivalent languages, 22
án (Gk.), 179, 186
an (Goth.), 179
Analysis of sentences, 218-219
Analytic character of IE dialects, 247-248
Analytic devices, development of, 247-249
Ananthanarayana, H. S.: on roots in TB, 225-226
Anastrophe, 36
Anatolian languages, 27. See also Hittite
and (NE), 160
anda (Hitt.), 233
antí (Gk.), 233
ánti (Skt.), 233
antuhšaš, antuhšeš (Hitt.), 202
Aorist, 107
- meaning of, 145-146
- relation of, to perfect, 144-146
Aorist passive in Vedic, 151
apò koinoû construction, 60, 66-67
Apollódōrus (Gk.), 82
appa (Hitt.), 233
Apposition, 23, 82, 86-88
Arabic
- basic patterns in, 15-17
- causative in, 96, 108
- concord in, 198
- development of, toward SVO, 20
- examples of, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
- reflexivization in, 19-20
ā́rat (Skt.), 224
arēlis (Lith.), 230
arhi- (Hitt.), 223
árṇas (Skt.), 230
arnu- (Hitt.), 148, 150
arnuzi (Hitt.), 226
Arrangement
- changes in, 238-247
- syntactic treatment of, 24
aršk- (Hitt.), 227
ā́rta (Skt.), 224
artifex (Lat.), 61
arunaš (Hitt.), 230
as- (Skt.), 182
Aspect, 96-97, 106-109, 139-148, 186-190
- categories of, as compounds of features, 188
- secondary, 146-147
ā́ste (Skt.), 127
Attributive
- adjective constructions, 11, 68-73
- adjectives and genitives, change in position of, 245
- genitives, 11, 73-75
- modifiers, 57-61, 86-87
augēre (Lat.), 145
Augment vowel (e-), 108, 145, 155
Augustine, Saint, 241-242
Autonomy of word in PIE, 41, 248
azzikk- (Hitt.), 148
Bahuvrihi, 76, 79-81, 84
"Basic meanings" of cases, 192
Basque verb system, 110
bébrūkhe (Gk.), 141
Benveniste, Emile: on meaning of genitive, 191-192
Beowulf, citations from: 2, 51; 6, 52; 30, 52; 120-123, 161
Bestätigungsfragen, 101, 122, 180
bhara (Skt.), 130
bher- (PIE), 203
bíbāmi (Gk.), 188
blackbird (NE), 90
bonus, -a, -um (Lat.), 70, 248
Brugmann, Karl
- on classification of sentence types, 181
- on deixis, 207
- on lack of future tense in PIE, 190
- on sentence as basic unit, 30
- on syntactic processes, 24
ca (Skt.), 33, 154, 215
Case
- categories, 10, 49
- conversion rules, 11
- grammars, 11, 24
- studies, 3
castra (Lat.), 69
Category, syntactic
- definition of, 175
- expressed with substantives, 190-203
- expressed with verbs, 177-190
- means of expression for, 175-177
Causative (Caus.), 11, 44, 96, 108-109, 149-152, 176, 183-184, 188
- increase in forms of, in Sanskrit, 183
Celtic, Insular, 54, 119. See also Irish, Old
Change, syntactic, 189
Chomsky, Noam: on theory of language, 6
Cicero, 41, 181
Circumstance, case forms for, 45
Collectives in PIE, 72
Comparative constructions, 15, 22, 246
- in Vedic, 31
Comparative method, 25, 238
Comparison, 15, 195, 202, 208, 232
Complement
- case forms to indicate, 48
- introduced by markers, 242-243
- Japanese, 164
- postposed, 243
Complementation, 13, 163-167
- verbal, in Hittite, 35
Compound
- adjectival, 38
- bahuvrihi, 76, 79-81, 84
- dvandva, 81-82
- Japanese, 76
- nominal, derivation of, 23
- relation of, to basic syntactic patterns, 76
- synthetic, 60-61, 76-79
- tatpurusha, 81-82
- treatments of, 3, 75-82
Concord, 198-201
Congruence, 109-110, 199-201
- in SVO languages, 70-71
Conjunctions: from particles, 234
Connectives. See Sentence connectives
Consistent languages, 12, 22-23
Coordination
- in PIE, 82, 87, 158-162, 219
- reduction, 160-161
Coordinators, postposed, 20
Cowgill, Warren: on first-person singular middle endings, 94, 105
ču (Quechua), 102, 153
Dative
- to indicate purpose, 45
- to indicate Receptor, 191, 194
- for indirect object, 43, 45, 48
Declarative (Dec.), 11, 99-100, 113-114, 179
dédorka (Gk.), 143
Definiteness, 84
Deictic elements, 18
deídō (Gk.), 145
Deixis, 18, 109-110, 207, 231
Delbrück, Berthold
- contributions of, to syntactic data, 26, 31
- on derivation of genitive constructions, 74-75
- on IE relative particle, 25
- on meaning of aorist, 145-146
- on meaning of optative affix, 137
- on particles in Vedic, 118
- on questions, 123
- on relative-clause formation, 59
Deletion, 13, 58-59
Denniston, J. D.: on particles in Greek, 54
Dental preterite in Germanic, 247
Deponents, 128
derk- (PIE), 9, 12
dérkomai (Gk.), 143
Desiderative, 105, 111, 184-185
Determinative, 235
Determiners in nominal phrases, 82-83
deus (Lat.), 4
deva-kṛta (Skt.), 82
Devoto, Giacomo: on quantitative connotation of aspect, 106
deyk- (PIE), 50
d(h) affix/determinative, 152, 235
dhām (Skt.), 205
dheʔ-, dhē- (PIE), 203
-dhi (PIE), 130
-di (Hitt.), 127
dic (Lat.), 130
Dillon, Myles: on particles in Celtic and Hittite, 54, 119, 214
Directive case in Hittite, 46
dō- (PIE), 43, 48
Dominance in IE verb, 111-112
dona (Lat.), 72
Dover, K. J.: on placement in Greek, 125, 152-153
Dressler, Wolfgang
- on aspects, 106
- on the iterative, 188
Drift, 250
Dual number, 201-202
duc (Lat.), 130
Durative aspect (-(Mom.), 140, 147-148, 186-187, 188-189. See also Momentary (Mom.)
dúraḥ (Skt.), 201
dvandvas, 81-82
dvéṣṭi (Skt.), 143
dyaus pitā (Skt.), 88
e-, 108, 145, 155
-ē-, -eʔ- (PIE), 182, 184
ê, ēé (Gk.), 123, 154
-e (perfect affix), 108, 141-143, 155
ea (Lat.), 66
earn (OE), 229
ed- (Hitt.), 148
ʔed- (PIE), 175
eg- (PIE), 206, 231
egit (Armenian), 189
egṓnē, égōge (Gk.), 154
eȋnai (Gk.), 153
eku- (Hitt.), 147
Elizarenkova, T.: on meaning of injunctive, 187
Embedding, 12, 57-59, 219
Emphatic patterns, 180, 220-221
Enclitic, 50-52, 54-55
Endings, verb, in IE languages, 104, 155
English, Old
- example, 73. See also Beowulf
- OV adjective order, 22
Ennius, 154
entlanc (early New High German), 246
-e/o- affix. See Subjunctive
éphaskon (Gk.), 148
Equational sentence, 115
Equivalent NP deletion, 13, 58-59
er- (IE). See γer- (PIE)
Ergative, 178
érkhomai (Gk.), 227
erteilen (German), 213, 229
es-, ʔes- (PIE), 115, 116, 203, 209
eš- (Hitt.), 165
et (Lat.), 160
Expression, means of, for syntactic categories, 175-177
-eyo- (PIE causative affix), 108-109, 150-151, 176
fac (Lat.), 130
Factitives, 150-151
fas (Lat.), 69
faurrinnan (Goth.), 229
Feature
- in aspects, 188
- semantic, 10
- syntactic, definition of, 175
fer (Lat.), 130, 205
Finals, restrictions of, in Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, 53
Finno-Ugric, 116
forēs (Lat.), 201
Frequentative, 187
Friedrich, Johannes: on Hittite particles, 119-120, 125
Future tense, development of, 133, 190
gā- (Skt.), 234
Gaedicke, Carl: on cases, 3
Gallehus inscription, 55
Gapping in Vedic, 33
Gardiner, Alan: on particles in Ancient Egyptian, 209
ge (Gk.), 154
gégēthe (Gk.), 141
gel- (Turkish), 92-93, 235
Gender, 198-201
- agreement in IE, 71-72
- system in PIE, origin of, 199-200
Generation of sentences, 216-218
Generative
- approach, defined, 6
- semantics, 7-8
- syntax, 7-9
Genitive
- to indicate partitive object, 48-49
- to indicate relationship between substantives, 190
- in marked construction, 73-74
- objective, 191
- with postpositions in Old Hittite, 212
- primary function of, 74, 192-193
- as reduced relative construction, 16, 38
- subjective, 191
- See also Attributive
γer- (PIE), 148, 223-228, 236
German
- Middle High (MHG): examples, 67, 161
- New High
  - change to OV order, 246
  - examples, 118, 198
- Old High (OHG): example, 41
Germanic
- grammar, 3, 28
- preterite-presents, 140, 189
- subjunctive based on optative, 185
- verse, 25, 51-52, 100
- See also Beowulf, citations from; Gudrunslied
γern- (PIE), 230
gha (Skt.), 154
Gimbutas, Marija: on IE culture, 5, 251
git- (Turkish), 235
gör- (Turkish), 204
γorn- (PIE), 230
goṣā́ (Skt.), 90
Gothic
- examples, 40, 118, 122, 179, 229
- particles after verbal prefixes, 36
Götze, Albrecht: on particles in Hittite and Celtic, 54, 119, 214
gó-vapus (Skt.), 84
gravis, grave (Lat.), 208, 248
Greek
- development of verb system, 146, 187
- grammar, 3, 27
- Ionic iterative preterites, 106, 147-148, 239-240
Greek examples:
- Homer, Iliad
  - Book 1: 1, 221; 70, 139, 209; 85, 144; 148, 144; 150, 132; 262-263, 4; 320-321, 66
  - Book 2: 8, 147; 54, 38; 270, 234
  - Book 5: 622, 183
  - Book 6: 363, 183
  - Book 10: 334, 19; 534, 123
  - Book 11: 50, 36
  - Book 16: 10, 143; 722, 35
  - Book 22: 94-95, 144; 482, 227
  - Book 24: 3, 37
- Homer, Odyssey:
  - Book 1: 1, 35, 199, 221; 5, 86; 10, 86-87; 30, 38; 32-36, 221; 47, 136; 59, 55; 63, 209; 80, 88; 158, 121; 170, 121; 185-186, 83; 226, 123; 402, 136; 429, 38
  - Book 2: 80, 194
  - Book 3: 19, 173; 55, 132; 249, 126; 251, 126; 313, 126
  - Book 4: 64, 126; 388-389, 65
  - Book 5: 6, 37; 486, 167
  - Book 8: 133, 131; 216, 135
  - Book 9: 209, 197; 259, 37; 405, 122; 412, 88
  - Book 11: 585-587, 239
  - Book 13: 19, 80; 42, 135
  - Book 14: 23, 148; 257, 38; 334, 242
- Luke 9.23, 19
- Thucydides 5.35, 243
- Xenophon, Anabasis: 4.4.11, 243
- Xenophon, Cyropaedia: 7.1.1, 36
Greenberg, Joseph, typological theory of, 6
gu (Sumerian), 236
Gudrunslied: 538.2, 67
gumakunds (Goth.), 82
g^wem- (PIE), 147, 225
g^wōus (PIE), 236
-h (PIE), 198, 202, 248
ha (Skt.), 155
haran (Hitt.), 230
Hebrew, 103
Heliand: 458-459, 72
Hermann, Eduard: on subordination in PIE, 159
hḗstai (Gk.), 127
hi (Skt.), 185
hi- conjugation, 140, 141, 143
h- inflection, 141-142, 201
híppagros (Gk.), 76
Hirt, Hermann: views of, on syntax, 4
Hittite
- complementary participles and infinitives, 165-166
- development of verb conjugation, 146
- examples, 34, 35, 42, 45, 46, 47, 54, 64, 65, 70, 75, 83, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 119, 121, 122, 125, 130, 150, 155, 157, 161, 165, 166, 169, 170, 185, 210, 212, 213, 214, 218, 219, 223, 227, 228, 233, 239, 240, 244
- gender, 200
- genitive with postpositions, 212
- grammar, 27
- hi- conjugation, 140, 141, 143
- imperative, 137-138
- iterative-duratives, 147-148
- kuit clauses, 169-170
- mi- conjugation, 140-143
- optative, lack of, 137, 162
- order of nominal sentences, 33-34
- particles, 54, 119, 214
- reshaping of imperative endings, 134-135
- relative constructions, 25, 64-65, 244-245
- result clauses, lack of, 159
- -ri, -t(i) affixes, 103
- -ri, -ru, -di, -t affixes, 127
- sentence connectives, 119, 215
- subjunctive, lack of, 162
Hittite, Late, 27
Hittite, Old, 27, 212
Hoffmann, Karl: on meaning of injunctive, 179, 187
Homer. See Greek examples
homō, hominem (Lat.), 206
Hortatory subjunctive, 131-132
hós, hḗ, hó (Gk.), 65
hṓste (Gk.), 242-243
huiš- (Hitt.), 239
Hypotactic relationships. See Subordinate clauses
-i (PIE verbal affix), 59, 93, 94, 99, 103, 125, 130, 134, 137, 179
i (Skt.), 214
-i ̯a, -a (Hitt.), 155, 160, 162
ibai (Goth.), 122, 180
id (Lat.), 66
Iliad. See Greek examples
Imperative, 114, 130, 132, 135, 137-138, 184, 185
- affix -u, 105, 130, 134
Imperfective. See Perfective
Inchoative, 187-188
Indicative, 99
Indo-Hittite hypothesis, 143
Infinitive, 209-210
Injunctive, Vedic, 93, 124, 132-133, 138, 145, 179, 186-187, 205
Insular Celtic, 119
Instrument, 11, 77, 191
Instrumental, 42, 47, 191, 194, 195, 196
Intensive, 187-188
Interrogative (Int.), 11, 17, 99-102, 121-123, 154, 179. See also Questions
Intonation, PIE, 24-25, 52, 100-101, 179
- changes in, 249-250
- patterns of, 49-52, 99
- reflected in Germanic alliterative verse, 51-52
invati (Skt.), 108
Ionic. See Greek: Ionic iterative preterites
Irish, Old
- relative constructions, 67-68
- sentence connectives, 54, 119, 214-215
- Würzburg glosses, 67-68
is, ea, id (Lat.), 66
it (Hitt.), 134
it (NE), 40
Iterative (Iter.), 11, 106, 147-148, 187, 239-240
iti (Skt.), 86, 173
íyarti (Skt.), 150, 224, 226, 227
Jacobi, Hermann, 3-4, 23
- on subordination, 60
- on syntactic structure of PIE, 61
jah (Goth.), 160
Japanese
- complement constructions, 164
- compounds, 76
Japanese (continued)
- desiderative, 105, 111
- examples, 20, 23, 39, 40, 57, 58, 59, 69, 149, 164, 167
- participial forms, 209, 216
- use of honorifics to express person & number, 178
Jespersen, Otto: on syntactic elements, 91
jigā́ti (Skt.), 188
juóste (Lith.), 145
Jūpiter (Lat.), 88
K (underlying case categories), 10-12
ka (Japanese Int. particle), 102, 179
-k- affix, use of, in Greek, 152, 247
kaí (Gk.), 129, 160
Kammenhuber, Annelies: on -ske, 106
kann (Goth.), 189
kāraka, 10
kāš, kē (Hitt.), 202
ke (Gk.), 135, 179, 186
keȋtai (Gk.), 128
key- (PIE), 128
ki (Japanese), 204
kimono (Japanese), 204
Kinship terms, PIE, analysis of, 225, 230
Kiparsky, Paul: on change of accent patterns in dialects, 249-250
kiru, kita (Japanese), 204
koinḗ (Gk.), 19
Krahe, Hans: on use of PIE cases, 43
-ku, -ku (Hitt.), 160
kuiš (Hitt.), relative construction marker, 63
kuit clauses, 169-170
Kurgan culture, 5, 251
kurur (Hitt.), 70, 200, 208, 231
k^we (PIE), 160
k^wi , k^wo-, k^wu- (PIE), 66, 179
-l- (first singular Hitt. Imper.), 185
lāman (Hitt.), 123, 135
Latin
- grammar, 3, 27
- examples, 21, 35, 40, 113, 192
  - Cicero, 41, 181
  - Ennius, Annals: 250, 154
  - Plautus, Asinaria: 884, 101
  - Plautus, Aulularia: 213, 101
  - Plautus, Curculio: 189, 80; 423, 125
  - Plautus, Pseudolus: 273, 111
  - Plautus, Truculentus: 723, 125
  - Praeneste inscription, 53
  - Vergil, Aeneid: 1.2, 181; 1.544, 36
laudō (Lat.), 247
lē (Hitt.), 123, 155
Lewy, Ernst: on verb systems, 110
Lexical analysis of PIE γer, 223-228
Lexical entry
- adjectival, 231-232
- adverbial, 232-233
- nominal, 229-230
- of verbal roots and preverbs, 228-229
- of preverbs, postpositions, and particles, 233-235
- pronominal, 230-231
Lexical features, 10, 12
li (Slavic), 102, 122, 154
Lisu, 11, 99, 176, 179
Lithuanian: optative forms with imperative sense, 137
loca (Lat.), 202
Locative, 42, 46, 191
locus (Lat.), 202
-lu (Hitt.), 134
-m (PIE), 198
m, s, t verbal endings, 93. See also PIE: m- inflection
mā́ (Skt.), 123, 124, 185, 186
mā (Tocharian A and B), 123
Macdonell, Arthur A.: on analysis of causative, 44
magnanimus (Lat.), 80
mahhan (Hitt.), 171
mā́kis (Skt.), 155
man- (Hitt.), 172, 185
mān (Hitt.), 171, 172
Manner, 11, 78
- adverbial expression of, 46-47
Maori, 60
mar (Tocharian A), 123
Marked construction
- of adjectives, 69
- of genitives, 73-74
- of patterns in language, 21-22, 30, 88, 114, 180, 181, 219-220
mḗ (Gk.), 122, 123, 132, 153, 180
me- (PIE), 206, 231
mē (PIE), 102, 123, 124, 132, 155, 180, 185, 186, 216
Means, 11, 77
- adverbial expression of, 47-48
mēcum (Lat.), 36
Meillet, Antoine
- on appositional relationships in PIE, 82, 86-87
- on autonomy of word in PIE, 41, 248
- on IE distinction between noun and verb, 110
- on lack of prefixes in PIE, 32-33
- on meaning of the accusative, 193
- on reintroduction of nominal sentences in Slavic, 116
mekki (Hitt.), 231
meli (Turkish), 105
memor (Lat.), 70, 208
mén (Gk.), 154
men- (PIE), 222
mḗtis (Gk.), 153, 155
-mi (IE), 10, 93
mi (Turkish), 9, 102, 153
mi- conjugation, 140-143
Middle (Mid.), 11, 18-19, 103, 127-130, 183
- endings, 142
- first-person singular endings, 94
- lost as IE languages became VO, 246
- lost in Greek koinē, 19
- -o affix, 94, 127, 130
- relation of, to perfect, 143-144, 182
mihi est construction (Lat.), 79
m- inflection, 141-142, 201
Mitchell, T. F.: on concord, 198
Modality, kinds of, 97-98. See also Q
Modal logic, 96-97
Modification, 24
- change in, 248-249
- as a syntactic marker, 52-53
Modifier. See Adjective; Genitive; Nominal: modifying constructions; Relative constructions; Verbal modifying constructions
Momentary (Mom.), 11, 107, 140-144, 186-187, 188-189
Moods in IE languages, 97, 105-106, 130-139, 184-190
n (PIE Caus. affix), 150-151
-na (Avestan), 101
na (Germanic), 101
na (Skt.), 102, 123, 124, 180
nákis (Skt.), 135
nāman (Skt.), 135
našma (Hitt.), 160
natta (Hitt.), 122, 124
nauta (Lat.), 72
ne (Lat.), 122, 123
-nē (Lat.), 101
ne, n, (PIE), 126
ne (PIE), 102, 123, 124, 125, 153, 180
Necessitative (Nec.), 11, 105, 130-135
nēd (Skt.), 124
Negation, sentence, in PIE, 123-126
Negative (Neg.), 11, 17, 99, 102
- placement, 153-154
nei (PIE), 124
nem- (Gk.), 222
nēmo (Lat.), 153
ni (Goth.), 180
nī (Lat.), 125, 180
n(i) (Skt.), 135
nioman (OHG), 153
nist (Goth.), 124
niu (Goth.), 122
no (Old Irish), 120
nōlo < ne vōlo (Lat.), 124
Nominal
- lexical units, 229-230
- modifying constructions, 15-16
- sentences, order of,
  - in Hittite and Vedic, 33-34
  - in IE, 115-116
Nominative, 42, 48, 191
nōn (Lat.), 124
none (NE), 153
nonne (Lat.), 122, 180
Norse, Old (ON), 116, 230
Noun, 110, 203, 206, 229-230, 235
Noun phrase (NP), 13, 57-59
nt- participles (PIE), 209
nu (Gk.), 122
nu (Hitt.), 54, 118, 119-120, 159, 214
nu (Skt.), 118, 122, 154
nū (Skt.), 118, 120, 215
num (Lat.), 122, 180
Number, 71-73, 94, 201-203
Numerals, 208
-o affix, 94, 127, 130
Obligative (Obl.), 105, 130-135
Odyssey. See Greek examples
oȋda (Gk.), 107, 140, 189
Old Church Slavic (OCS). See Slavic
Old English (OE). See English, Old
Old High German (OHG). See German: Old High
Old Hittite, 27, 212
Old Irish. See Irish, Old
Old Norse (ON), 116, 230
Old Persian, 115
Old Saxon, 72
Optative
- endings for, 94, 105, 137
- lack of, in Hittite, 137, 162
- in PIE and early dialects, 135-139, 184-185
Order. See Arrangement; OV order; VO order
orior (Lat.), 226
ǫrn (ON), 230
ornis, órnīthos (Gk.), 229
órnumi (Gk.), 226
ôrto (Gk.), 223, 224, 225
Otfrid, 41
ou, ouk (Gk.), 122, 123, 129, 153, 180
oúte (Gk.), 126
OV languages, 12, 39, 168, 204, 235
OV order
- characteristics of, 14-21, 92-95
- embedding processes, 57-59
- reintroduction of, 39, 116
- See also PIE: OV order
pad-, Vedic forms of, 206
paenitet (Lat.), 111
pāi- (Hitt.), 120
Pali, 240-241
Panini
- on kāraka, 10
- on injunctive, 93
- paptas (Vedic), 146
parā (Hitt.), 118, 232, 233
parā (Skt.), 232, 233
paraśús (Skt.), 236
Parataxis, 158-162
Participial constructions in place of relatives, 37
Participles, 208-211
Particles, 116-120, 197, 211-216, 234
- for delimiting sentences, 32, 53-55, 214-216
- postposed, for emphasis, 220
Partitive object, 49
Passive, 108-109, 129, 151-152, 182-184
- diversity of formations of, in IE dialects, 184
- increase in forms of, in Sanskrit, 183-184
- perfect, in Latin, 246
Patronymics, 38
Paul, Hermann
- on definition of sentence, 8-9
- on syntactic means or processes, 24
Pedersen, Holger: on causative in Tocharian, 188
peγ- (PIE), 41
pélekus (Gk.), 236
per (Gk.), 234
per (PIE), 232-233
Perfect, 107-108, 140-141, 143-146
- affix -e, 108, 141-143, 155
- endings, 141-142
- meaning, 141
- relation to aorist, 144-146
- relation to middle, 143-144, 182
Perfective (Perf.), 11, 97, 106-108, 139-141, 186-187
Periphrastic constructions, 210
Persian, Old: example, 115
Person
- endings for, 94, 142, 201
- expressed by honorifics in Japanese, 178
- expressions for, 110
phásken (Gk.), 148
phére (Gk.), 130
philós (Gk.), 129
philósophos (Gk.), 81
phobéō (Gk.), 108
phoréō (Gk.), 108
Phrases as syntactic units in PIE, 52-53
Phrase-structure rules, 6, 10-12, 41, 78, 216
pickpocket (NE), 90
PIE
- accent. See Accent, PIE
- adjective, 208
- causatives, 150, 176
- community of speakers, 251
- data, 26-28
- gender, 198-199
- h- inflection, 141-142, 201
- lexicon, 222-223
- m- inflection, 141-142, 201
- noun, 206
- numerals, 208
- OV order, 20, 30, 39, 238
  - developing toward VO, 39, 63, 68, 90, 103, 197, 199, 238-251
  - evidence for, in Greek, 35-39
  - in Hittite, 34-35
  - in Vedic, 30-34
- participles and other nominal forms, 208-211
- person endings, 94, 142, 201
- prefixes, lack of, 32-33, 37
- root, 203-205
- simple sentences, 39-49
  - modified forms of, 113-139
- syntactic treatment, aims of, 24-26
- syntax, earlier treatments of, 3-6
- verb, 205-206
- verbal system, change in, 111-112, 246-248
pilaqqu (Akkadian), 236
piran (Hitt.), 212
Pitch in Vedic, 50-51, 249
Pivot, 15
Place, 11, 78, 191
- adverbial expressions for, 46
Plautus. See Latin: examples
pluit (Lat.), 39, 111, 123
Plurality in verbal aspect, 147
pluti markers, 100, 180, 220
pō-, peγ- (PIE), 175
Possession, expression for, 79-80
Postpositions, 15, 196, 212
- development to prepositions, 234
- in Vedic, 31
pra (Skt.), 228-229
prá (Skt.), 118, 228
Praeneste inscription, 53
prá-pada (Skt.), 81
Prefixes, verbal
- absent in OV languages, 20
- absent in PIE, 32-33, 37
- loss of, in Old Norse, 116
Prepositions, 15, 197, 212, 234
Present, 107
Presuppositions with Int., 122
Preterite, iterative, 106, 147-148, 239-240
Preverbs, 116-118, 212-214, 228-229, 233-235
Primary endings, 93
Principle of order, 12
pró (Gk.), 118, 139
prō (Lat.), 232
proérkhomai (Gk.), 229
Pronominalization, 17-18
Pronominal lexical units, 230-231
propátōr (Gk.), 81
Propositional elements, 11
proprius (Lat.), 81
P rules. See Phrase-structure rules
purā́ (Skt.), 139, 216
Purpose
- case forms for, 45
- clauses, absence of, in Hittite, 159
- infinitives of, 242
- in PIE, 168
púṣṭi-gu (Skt.), 79
Q
- qualifiers, 11, 16
- affixes, change in meanings of, 112
- component, elements introduced through, 91-109, 189
que (Lat.), 154, 215
Quechua
- obligative and necessitative, 105
- order of affixes, 103-104
- reciprocal, 103
- reflexive, 103
Questions
- clarification, 101, 121, 179
- confirmation, 101, 122, 180
- disjunctive, 123
- modification of modal meanings in, 138
- presuppositions with, 122-123
- See also Interrogative (Int.)
-r (Celtic and Italic), 184
ṛ (PIE). See γer-
ṛ- (Skt.), 218
- with pra-, 228-229
rāja-putra (Skt.), 81, 84
Raman, Carol
- on Hittite relative constructions, 25, 64-65, 244-245
- on Hittite sentence connectives, 119, 215
ṛcháti (Skt.), 227
Receptor, 11, 77, 191, 194
Reciprocal, 102-103, 126, 130
- pronouns, late, 246
redneck (NE), 9
Reduced relative construction, 16, 38
Reduplication, 188
Reflexive, 48, 126-130
- pronouns, late, 207, 246
Reflexivization, 17-20, 102-103
- indicated by pronouns, 19, 102, 127-128
Reintroduction of OV patterns, 39, 116
Relative clause, 26
- determined vs. nondetermined, in Hittite, 64
- formation of, 58-59, 163, 219
- markers for, 63, 65-66, 90
- parallel with subordinate clauses in OV languages, 168
- reduction of, 13
Relative constructions, 15-16, 37, 66, 159, 207
- in early dialects, 61-68
- in Hittite and PIE, 25, 63-65, 244-245
- in Vedic, 32, 62
Relativization, 13
Renou, Louis: on perfect, 141
Result, case forms for, 45
Result clauses, absence of, in Hittite, 159
Resultative, 196
Rheme, 220
-ri (Hitt.), 103, 127
Rigveda, 26. See also Sanskrit: examples
rinnan (Goth.), 229
Risch, Ernst: on IE compounds, 76, 81
ṛṇóti (Skt.), 150, 224, 226, 227
Rōmam īre (Lat.), 46, 194
Root, PIE, 203-205, 235-236
- in comparison with roots of OV languages, 204, 235
- examples of, γer-, 223-228
- with preverbs, 228-229
rosa (Lat.), 72, 248
-ru (Hitt.), 127
run (ON), 230
runs (Goth.), 230
ruō (Lat.), 226
Russian: expression of aspect, 96-97
ryne (OE), 230
-s (nominal), use of in PIE, 75, 158, 193, 198
-s- (verbal), use of in PIE, 152, 184
sa (Skt.), 54, 86, 118, 120, 215, 235
sádati (Skt.), 127
sam (Skt.), 214
Samoyede verb system, 110
Sandhi, 24, 248-249
Sanskrit
- desiderative, 105-106
- grammars, 3, 27
- third-person singular endings, 104
- verb system, development of, 187
Sanskrit examples
- Aitareya Braḥmāna (AB): 3.34.1, 32; 7.14, 84-85
- Rigveda (RV)
  - Book 1: 1.5, 47; 10.1, 180; 12.10, 33; 14.1, 181; 16.3, 211; 31.4, 129; 32.5, 44, 47, 133; 35.11, 61; 36.18, 47; 38.4, 172; 46.9, 129; 48.10, 80; 57.4, 195; 62.3, 186; 64.5, 200; 84.6, 232; 85.1, 62; 85.12, 62; 89.8, 62; 91.9, 62; 92.8, 135; 102.7, 33; 113.16, 210; 134.3, 127; 147.5, 213; 164.17, 234; 167.5, 171; 167.6, 171; 167.7, 82-83, 171; 167.8, 158-159; 167.9, 173; 167.10, 173; 174.2, 150
  - Book 2: 1.11, 79; 13.2, 32; 17.4, 78; 24.8, 182; 29.3, 134; 30.7, 43; 33.5, 219; 33.8, 219, 220; 33.9, 71; 35.2, 107; 37.6, 44, 150
  - Book 3: 3.1, 124; 33.8, 124; 48.2, 168; 53.2, 233; 58.8, 77; 61.6, 151
  - Book 4: 2.3, 112; 2.4, 81; 5.8, 121; 5.15, 164; 9.1, 114; 15.7, 224; 16.3, 148; 16.5, 115; 22.6, 47; 24.5, 127; 28.5, 115; 30.1, 116; 31.9, 124; 32.11, 63; 33.5, 133; 37.2, 87; 39.1, 114; 40.3, 113; 42.5, 227; 48.1, 114
  - Book 5: 1.1, 151; 1.2, 165; 4.6, 185; 5.10, 150; 25.8, 224; 39.2, 165; 52.6, 217; 54.15, 112; 79.10, 166
  - Book 6: 13.3, 79; 16.10, 87; 16.19, 78; 19.2, 145; 19.9, 214; 24.9, 107; 28.3, 134; 44.18, 154; 95.15, 146
  - Book 7: 5.6, 44; 11.1, 128; 12.3, 115; 21.3, 47, 165; 27.1, 131; 32.2, 128; 56.21, 217; 60.8, 77; 61.2, 228; 67.4, 132; 68.3, 228; 71.1, 45, 135, 213; 71.2, 136, 156; 71.3, 157; 71.4, 157, 213; 71.5, 156; 86.2, 138; 86.4, 168; 88.5, 139; 89.5, 171, 195
  - Book 8: 1.7, 227; 19.10, 107; 24.20, 31; 43.22, 132; 44.23, 136; 48.1, 117; 48.2, 100, 117; 48.3, 21; 48.4, 45; 48.7, 195; 48.8, 42, 45, 117, 195; 48.10, 138; 48.13, 194, 197; 48.14, 185; 48.15, 34; 82.9, 212; 92.18, 78; 96.8, 193
  - Book 9: 1.7, 49; 26.5, 49; 52.1, 79; 72.5, 78; 101.9, 112
  - Book 10: 27.14, 107; 34.1, 43, 52; 34.5, 42; 34.10, 46; 34.11, 40, 43; 34.12, 42; 34.13, 42; 34.14, 42; 42.3, 167; 53.9, 186; 61.14, 87; 63.9, 77; 85.13, 151; 88.17, 127; 95.15, 146; 97.19, 197; 108.9, 134; 155.3, 147; 168.1, 182
- Śatapathabrāhmaṇa (ŚB): 1.2.1.12, 31; 1.3.2.15, 31, 100; 1.6.3.1-12, 88-89; 1.6.3.3, 54; 1.6.3.5, 55; 1.6.3.14, 55; 1.6.3.15, 55; 2.1.4.16, 165; 3.1.3.3, 74; 3.9.4.15, 74; 11.1.6.8, 53
- Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (TB): 1.1.9.7, 51; 2.1.1.1, 51; 2.7.1.3, 50; 3.11.7.3, 51
- Taittirīya Saṁhitā (TS): 1.5.9.2, 74; 2.1.10.3, 33; 2.4.10.1, 160; 5.1.2.3, 31; 6.5.4.1, 131
sás, sā́, tád (Skt.), 119
Śatapathabrāhmaṇa (ŚB). See Sanskrit: examples
Saxon, Old, 72
Schmidt, Johannes: on IE plural formation, 69, 198
Secondary endings, 141-142
sed- (PIE), 127
Seebold, Elmar: on PIE weyd-, 236
seiner (German), 128
Selection categories in IE syntax, 24, 247-248
Sememe, 9
Sentence
- connectives, 54, 118-120, 160, 214-215
- definition, 8-9
- fundamental unit of language, 6
- generation, 8
- impersonal, 39-41
- introductory particles, 32
- negative, 123-126.
Separable prefixes in German, 36
Sequence of tenses, 112, 172
sequor (Lat.), 128
sésēre (Gk.), 141
śéte (Skt.), 128
sew(e)- (PIE), 128, 207
s formations, 145
sich (German), 128
-ske suffix (IE), 106, 147-149, 188
Slavic
- grammar, 3, 28
- development of verbal system, 187
- nominal sentences, 116
sma (Skt.), 154, 216
so-, sā-, to- (PIE), 207
Sociative, 191
Sommer, Ferdinand: on meaning of genitive, 192
Source, 11, 77, 191
Squamish, 99, 119, 120, 179, 215
Standard, 15
Stative, 107, 141
sthā-, forms of, in Vedic, 93
Stigmata, 15, 22
Sturtevant, E. H.: and Indo-Hittite hypothesis, 118-119, 214
Stylistic rules, 221
šu (Hitt.), 54, 118, 120, 214-215
Subject, 14, 40, 156-158
- appositional in PIE, 113
Subjective dominance, 242
Subjective quality of verb in IE, 110-112, 172, 239
Subjunctive, 138
- affix for, in PIE, 105, 134, 184
- endings for, 94
- in Germanic, 185
- in Hittite, 185
- lack of, in Hittite, 162
- loss of, in dialects, 134
- in PIE, 131-135
- in Sanskrit, 185
- in subordinate clauses, 133
Subordinate clauses, 167-174
Subordination, 60, 136
Suffix, 235
šunna- (Hitt.), 140
Surface phenomena, interpretation of, 178
sva- (Skt.), 129
SVO languages, 14, 18
- requirement of subject, 40
Swahili: examples, 71
Syncretism in verb system, 187
Syntactic change, 189
- from PIE to dialects, 129, 238-250
Syntactic explanation
- based on universals, 5
- by attraction, 4
- by borrowing, 4
Syntax
- definitions of, 5-6
- explanatory, 5-11
- processes or means of, 24
Synthetic. See Compound: synthetic
Systematization of paradigms, 247-248
-t (Hitt.), 127
ta (Hitt.), 54, 118, 120, 214-215
tāh, tigon (OE), 50
Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (TB). See Sanskrit: examples
Taittirīya Saṁhitā (TS). See Sanskrit: examples
takku (Hitt.), 172, 215
takšul (Hitt.), 70, 231
Target, 11, 12, 77, 191, 194
Tatpurusha, 81-82
te (Gk.), 154, 215
-te (PIE), 130
Temporal clauses, 168
Tense, 17, 97, 133, 139, 177, 189, 190
- indicated by particles in PIE, 139, 176, 216
tethēlṓs (Gk.), 141
tew- (PIE), 206
-thē- (Gk.), 184
Thematic vowel, 247-248
Theme, 220
Thurneysen, Rudolf
- on IE inflection, 93
- on the imperative, 99
-t(i) (Hitt.), 103
Time, 11, 77, 191
- adverbial expression for, 45-46, 139
Titles, order of, 23, 87-88
to (Japanese), 173
Tocharian, 123-124, 188
Topicalization, 13, 156-158, 220-221
tozan (Japanese), 76
Transformational rules, 13
Transitive, lack of formal distinction for, in early PIE, 181-182
Transportation processes, 13, 122, 152-156
tu (Skt.), 118
Turkish
- basic patterns, 15-17
- examples, 15, 16, 17, 18, 92-93, 95
- meli forms, 105
Typology, 6, 15-16
u (Goth.), 122, 154
-u. See Imperative: affix -u
uk (Hitt.), 202
úkṣati (Skt.), 145
Urteil (German), 213, 229
utá (Skt.), 158-159
uttar, uddanaš (Hitt.), 231
uu̯a- (Hitt.), 120
V, definition of, 15
vā (Skt.), 154
v affix, in Latin, 152, 247
ve (Lat.), 154
véda (Skt.), 107, 140, 186, 187, 189, 205
Vedic, 30-34, 50-51, 62, 93, 131, 136, 151, 170-171, 206, 249. See also Injunctive, Vedic
ver- (Turkish), 204
Verb, 110. See also PIE: verb; PIE: verbal system
Verbal modifying constructions, 16-17
Verbal noun, 23
Verdeutlichungsfragen, 101, 121, 179
Vergil. See Latin: examples
Verkuyl, H. J.: on aspects, 188
verlieren (German), 118
Verner, Karl: on pitch in Germanic, 50
vetus (Lat.), 70
vīdi (Lat.), 140, 189
vigil (Lat.), 70
VO languages, 12
- gender in, 199
VO order
- characteristics of, 15-20
- inconsistent in Classical Greek and Latin, 238
- in Saint Augustine, 241-242
vocas (Vedic), 146
Vocatives, 86, 114, 190
- modifiers to, 87
Voice, 181-184
Volitional, Voluntative (Vol.), 11, 105, 135-139
Vormund (German), 118
Vowel harmony, Turkish, 92
VSO
- relative constructions, 67-68, 90
- sentence connectives, 119
Wachowicz, Krystyna: on multiple question words, 121
Wackernagel, Jacob
- contributions of, to syntactic study, 28
- explanations of, for syntactic phenomena, 4, 37-38
- law of, 52, 122, 152-154, 221
- on lexical expression for tense, 176
- on meaning of perfect, 141
wahsjan (Goth.), 145
wait (Goth.), 107, 140, 189
watar, wetenaš (Hitt.), 147, 206
Watkins, Calvert
- on position of preverbs, 117
- on primary function of genitive, 74, 193
wē̆ (PIE), 160, 216
wēš (Hitt.), 202
wetenaš (Hitt.), 147, 206
wey- (PIE), 236
weyd- (PIE), 140, 144, 176, 186, 189, 235, 236
wid- (PIE), 144, 176
widār (Hitt.), 147
woid- (PIE), 176, 186
Words, as syntactic units in PIE, 53
wot (English), 140
WP (Walde-Pokorny lexicon of IE), 222-223
Würzburg glosses, 67-68
ya- (Skt.), 169
yadā (Skt.), 171
yad clauses, Vedic, 131, 136, 170-171
yadi (Skt.), 138
yaj- (Skt.)
- forms of, in TB, 98
- illustrations of middle use of, 127
yamanobori, Japanese, 76
yāstē (Avestan), 143
yatra (Skt.), 171
-yeʔ- (PIE). See Optative
yo- (PIE), 168
-yo- (PIE), 182, 184
yo relative clause, 26
yod (PIE), 168-169
yomimono (Japanese), 204
yomu, yonda (Japanese), 110, 204
yos, yā, yod (PIE), 66
yuváti (Skt.), 143
zēh, zigum (OHG), 50
zeiaí (Gk.), 201
Zeû páter (Gk.), 88