Old English Online

The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan relates certain travels attributed to Ohthere, whose story along with that of one Wulfstan was included in King Alfred's translation from Latin of the Compendious History of the World by Paulus Orosius (d. 420). Ohthere was a Norwegian hunter, whaler, and trader who tells among other things of his voyages north and east of the Scandinavian peninsula, round the Kola peninsula to the White Sea (all of these terms being modern). Orosius' History did not include Ohthere's tale, nor that of Wulfstan; rather, these stories were composed or copied from an unknown source and inserted into the Anglo-Saxon translation of the History.

While their factual bases cannot be verified, both of these stories contain far less fanciful narrative and much more apparent fact than is normally found in popular medieval travelers' tales. Not all the places and peoples mentioned in the Voyages can be identified with certainty, but what can be pinned down fits very well with geography and a ninth-century setting.

Reading and Textual Analysis

Our selection includes lines 63-97, found on pp. 19-20 in: Charles T. Onions, ed. (1959), Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader in Prose and Verse, 14th edition, Oxford: Clarendon. In it, we read of the geography and peoples of Scandinavia, and of an apparent (?) half-circumnavigation of the British Isles, heading west and north from Wessex, where Ohthere is presumably located while narrating this story, past Ireland on the way around Scotland to Norway and a port in the south thereof. (There are several other theories concerning the route, signalling its uncertain identification.) Our selection ends with his mention of a great sea to the east.

Hé sæde ðæt Norðmanna land wære swýþe lang and swýðe smæl.

• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• sæde -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <secgan, sægde, sægd> say -- said
• ðæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• Norðmanna -- proper noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Norð-mann> Norwegian, lit. north-man -- of the Norwegians
• land -- strong noun, neuter; nominative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- the land
• wære -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive of <wesan> be, happen -- was
• swýþe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• lang -- adjective; nominative singular of <lang> long -- long
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• swýðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• smæl -- adjective; nominative singular of <smæl> small, narrow -- narrow

Eal þæt his man áþer oððe ettan oððe erian mæg, þæt líð wið ðá sæ;

• eal -- adjective; nominative singular of <eall> all -- all
• þæt -- demonstrative used as relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <sé, séo, ðæt> who, which, that -- that
• his -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- a
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- man
• áþer -- correlative conjunction <áhwæþer> either -- either
• oððe -- correlative conjunction <oððe> or -- ...
• ettan -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <ettan, ettede, etted> graze, pasture -- graze
• oððe -- correlative conjunction <oððe> or -- or
• erian -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <erian, erede, ered> plow -- plow
• mæg -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular present indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- can
• þæt -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <sé, séo, ðæt> that -- ...
• líð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular present of <licgan, læg, lægon, legen> lie, extend, be situated -- extends
• wið -- preposition <wið> against, along -- alongside
• ðá -- definite article; accusative singular feminine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• sæ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <sæ> sea, lake -- sea

and þæt is þéah on sumum stówum swýðe clúdig;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- but
• þæt -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <sé, séo, ðæt> that -- it
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• þéah -- adverb <þéah> yet, though, however -- however
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• sumum -- adjective; dative plural of <sum> some, a certain -- certain
• stówum -- strong noun, feminine; dative plural of <stów> place -- places
• swýðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• clúdig -- adjective; nominative singular of <clúdig> rocky -- rocky

and licgað wilde móras wið éastan and wið uppon emnlange þæm býnum lande.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• licgað -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person plural present of <licgan, læg, lægon, legen> lie, extend, be situated -- lie
• wilde -- adjective; accusative plural of <wilde> wild, untamed -- wild
• móras -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moors
• wið éastan -- adverb <wið éastan> to the east -- to the east
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• wið uppon -- adverb <wið uppan> upwards, above -- above
• emnlange -- preposition <emnlange> along -- beside
• þæm -- definite article; dative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• býnum -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <býn> inhabited, occupied -- inhabited
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land

On þæm mórum eardiað Finnas.

• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- on
• þæm -- definite article; dative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• mórum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moors
• eardiað -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person plural present of <eardian, eardode, eardod> live, dwell -- live
• Finnas -- proper noun, masculine plural; nominative of <Finnas> Finns -- Finns

And þæt býne land is éasteweard brádost, and symle swá norðor swá smælre.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• þæt -- definite article; nominative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• býne -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <býn> inhabited, occupied -- inhabited
• land -- strong noun, neuter; nominative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• éasteweard -- adverb <éast-weard> eastward -- to the east
• brádost -- adjective; superlative of <brád> broad, open -- broadest
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• symle -- adverb <simle> ever, always -- ever
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- ...
• norðor -- adverb; comparative of <norð> north(wards) -- further north
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- ...
• smælre -- adjective; comparative of <smæl> small, narrow -- narrower

Éastewerd hit mæg bíon syxtig míla brád, oþþe hwéne brádre;

• éastewerd -- adverb <éast-weard> eastward -- to the east
• hit -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- it
• mæg -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular present indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- may
• bíon -- anomalous verb; infinitive of <béon> be, become, exist -- be
• syxtig -- numeral <siextig> sixty -- sixty
• míla -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <míl> mile -- miles
• brád -- adjective; nominative singular of <brád> broad, open -- wide
• oþþe -- correlative conjunction <oððe> or -- or
• hwéne -- adverb <hwón> somewhat, a little -- somewhat
• brádre -- adjective; comparative of <brád> broad, open -- more

and middeweard þrítig oððe brádre;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• middeweard -- adverb <midde-weard> mid-ward, middling -- towards the middle
• þrítig -- numeral <þrítig> thirty -- thirty
• oððe -- correlative conjunction <oððe> or -- or
• brádre -- adjective; comparative of <brád> broad, open -- more

and norðeweard hé cwæð, þær hit smalost wære, þæt hit mihte béon þréora míla brád tó þæm móre;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• norðeweard -- adverb <norð-weard> northward -- to the north
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• cwæð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwædon, cweden> say, speak -- said
• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- there
• hit -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- it
• smalost -- adjective; superlative of <smæl> small, narrow -- narrowest
• wære -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive of <wesan> be, happen -- was
• þæt -- conjunction <þæt> so/in order that -- so that
• hit -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- it
• mihte -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite optative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- might
• béon -- anomalous verb; infinitive of <béon> be, become, exist -- be
• þréora -- numeral; genitive plural of <þríe, þréo, þréo> three -- three
• míla -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <míl> mile -- miles
• brád -- adjective; nominative singular of <brád> broad, open -- wide
• tó -- preposition <tó> (in)to -- towards
• þæm -- definite article; dative singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• móre -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moor

and se mór syðþan, on sumum stówum, swá brád swá man mæg on twám wucum oferféran;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• mór -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moor
• syðþan -- adverb <syððan> afterwards -- afterwards
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• sumum -- adjective; dative plural of <sum> some, a certain -- some
• stówum -- strong noun, feminine; dative plural of <stów> place -- places
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- as
• brád -- adjective; nominative singular of <brád> broad, open -- wide
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- as
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• mæg -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular present indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- might
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• twám -- numeral; feminine plural of <twégen, twá, tú> twain, two -- two
• wucum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <wucu> week -- weeks
• oferféran -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <oferféran, oferférde, oferféred> traverse -- cross

and on sumum stówum swá brád swá man mæg on syx dagum oferféran.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• sumum -- adjective; dative plural of <sum> some, a certain -- some
• stówum -- strong noun, feminine; dative plural of <stów> place -- places
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- as
• brád -- adjective; nominative singular of <brád> broad, open -- wide
• swá -- adverb <swá> so, thus -- as
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• mæg -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular present indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- might
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• syx -- numeral <siex> six -- six
• dagum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <dæg> day -- days
• oferféran -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <oferféran, oferférde, oferféred> traverse -- cross

Ðonne is tóemnes þæm lande súðeweardum, on óðre healfe þæs móres, Swéoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard;

• ðonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- then
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• tóemnes -- preposition <tóemnes> alongside -- alongside
• þæm -- demonstrative article; dative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> that -- that
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land # Norway
• súðeweardum -- adjective; dative singular of <súðe-weard> southward -- on the south
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- on
• óðre -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <óðer> other, next, second -- the other
• healfe -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <healf> half, part, side -- side
• þæs -- definite article; genitive singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- of the
• móres -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moors
• Swéoland -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Swéo-land> Sweden -- Sweden
• oþ -- preposition <oð> until, up to, as far as -- as far as
• þæt -- demonstrative article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> that -- that
• land -- strong noun, neuter; accusative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land # Norway
• norðeweard -- adverb <norð-weard> northward -- to the north

and tóemnes þæm lande norðeweardum, Cwéna land.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• tóemnes -- preposition <tóemnes> alongside -- alongside
• þæm -- definite article; dative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- that
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land
• norðeweardum -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <norð-weard> northward -- on the north
• Cwéna -- proper noun, masculine plural; genitive of <Cwénas> Cwenas, Cwena people -- of the Cwena people # a Finnish tribe
• land -- strong noun, neuter; nominative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- the land

Þá Cwénas hergiað hwílum on ðá Norðmen ofer ðone mór, hwílum þá Norðmen on hý.

• þá -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Cwénas -- proper noun, masculine plural; nominative of <Cwénas> Cwenas, Cwena people -- Cwenas
• hergiað -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person plural present of <hergian, hergode, gehergod> harry, raid, ravage -- conduct raids
• hwílum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <hwíl> while, time -- sometimes
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- against
• ðá -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Norðmen -- proper noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Norð-mann> Norwegian, lit. north-man -- Norwegians
• ofer -- preposition <ofer> over, across -- across
• ðone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• mór -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moor
• hwílum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <hwíl> while, time -- sometimes
• þá -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Norðmen -- proper noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Norð-mann> Norwegian, lit. north-man -- Norwegians
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- against
• hý -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative plural of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- them

And þær sint swíðe micle meras fersce geond þá móras;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- there
• sint -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <is> be, become, exist -- are
• swíðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• micle -- adjective; nominative plural of <micel> much, great -- large
• meras -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <mere> mere, lake, sea -- lakes
• fersce -- adjective; nominative plural of <fersc> fresh -- fresh-water
• geond -- preposition <geond> over, through(out) -- throughout
• þá -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• móras -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <mór> moor; mountainous region -- moors

and berað þá Cwénas hyra scypu ofer land on ðá meras, and þanon hergiað on þá Norðmen;

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• berað -- strong verb, class IV; 3rd person plural present of <beran, bær, bæron, boren> bear, carry -- carry
• þá -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Cwénas -- proper noun, masculine plural; nominative of <Cwénas> Cwenas, Cwena people -- Cwenas
• hyra -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive plural of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- their
• scypu -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <scip> ship -- ships
• ofer -- preposition <ofer> over, across -- over
• land -- strong noun, neuter; accusative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- the land
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- onto
• ðá -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• meras -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <mere> mere, lake, sea -- lakes
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• þanon -- adverb <ðonan> thence, from there -- from there
• hergiað -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person plural present of <hergian, hergode, gehergod> harry, raid, ravage -- raid
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- ...
• þá -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Norðmen -- proper noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Norð-mann> Norwegian, lit. north-man -- Norwegians

hý habbað swýðe lýtle scypa and swýðe léohte.

• hý -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- they
• habbað -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person plural present of <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- have
• swýðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• lýtle -- adjective; accusative plural of <lýtel> little, small -- small
• scypa -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <scip> ship -- ships
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• swýðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- very
• léohte -- adjective; accusative plural of <léoht> light, easy -- light

Óhthere sæde þæt sío scír hátte Hálgoland þe hé on búde.

• Óhthere -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Óhthere> Ohthere -- Ohthere
• sæde -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <secgan, sægde, sægd> say -- said
• þæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• sío -- definite article; nominative singular feminine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• scír -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <scír> shire, district, division -- district
• hátte -- strong verb, class VII; 3rd person singular passive of <hátan, heht, héton, háten> call, name; order -- is called # relic of medio-passive
• Hálgoland -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Hálgo-land> Helgeland -- Helgeland
• þe -- relative particle <þe> that, which, who -- which
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• búde -- irregular verb; 3rd person singular preterite of <búan, búde, býne> dwell, live -- lived

Hé cwæð þæt nán man ne búde be norðan him.

• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• cwæð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwædon, cweden> say, speak -- said
• þæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• nán -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + indefinite article <án> a, an, one -- no
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- ... # double negative, for emphasis
• búde -- irregular verb; 3rd person singular preterite of <búan, búde, býne> dwell, live -- lived
• be norðan -- adverb <be norðan> north of -- north of
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- him

Þonne is án port on súðeweardum þæm lande, þone man hæt Scíringes héal.

• þonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- ...
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- (there) is
• án -- indefinite article; nominative singular of <án> a, an, one -- a
• port -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <port> port, harbor -- port
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• súðeweardum -- adjective; dative singular of <súðe-weard> southward -- the south of
• þæm -- definite article; dative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- that
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land # Norway
• þone -- demonstrative used as relative pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <sé, séo, ðæt> who, which, that -- which
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• hæt -- strong verb, class VII; 3rd person singular present of <hátan, heht, héton, háten> call, name; order -- calls
• Scíringes héal -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Scíringes-héal> Skiringssal -- Skiringssal

Þyder hé cwæð þæt man ne mihte geseglian on ánum mónðe, gyf man on niht wícode, and ælce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind;

• þyder -- adverb <þyder> thither -- there
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• cwæð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwædon, cweden> say, speak -- said
• þæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- not
• mihte -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite optative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- could
• geseglian -- weak verb, class II; infinitive of <geseglian, geseglode, geseglod> sail -- sail
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- in
• ánum -- indefinite article; dative singular masculine of <án> a, an, one -- a
• mónðe -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <mónað> month -- month
• gyf -- conjunction <gif> if -- if
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- one
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- at
• niht -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <niht> night -- night
• wícode -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <wician, wícode, wícod> camp, lodge -- anchored # (near the shore)
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• ælce -- adjective; instrumental singular of <ælc> all, any -- each
• dæge -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <dæg> day -- day
• hæfde -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- had
• ambyrne -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ambyr> favorable, fair -- (a) favorable
• wind -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <wind> wind -- wind

and ealle ðá hwíle hé sceal seglian be lande.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• ealle -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <eall> all -- all
• ðá -- definite article; accusative singular feminine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• hwíle -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <hwíl> while, time -- while
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• sceal -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class IV; 3rd person singular present indicative of <sculan, sceal, sculon, scolde> shall, ought to -- shall
• seglian -- weak verb, class II; infinitive of <seglian, seglode, seglod> sail -- sail
• be -- preposition <be> at, by, near -- near
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land

And on þæt stéorbord him bið ærest Íraland, and þonne ðá ígland þe synd betux Íralande and þissum lande.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- to
• þæt -- definite article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• stéorbord -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <stéor-bord> starboard, lit. stear(ing)-board -- starboard
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- of him # the traveler
• bið -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• ærest -- adverb; superlative of <ær> ere, before, formerly -- first
• Íraland -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Íra-land> Ireland -- Ireland
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• þonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- then
• ðá -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• ígland -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <íglond> island -- islands # (Hebrides?)
• þe -- relative particle <þe> that, which, who -- which
• synd -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural present indicative of <is> be, become, exist -- are
• betux -- preposition <betux> between -- between
• Íralande -- proper noun, neuter; dative singular of <Íra-land> Ireland -- Ireland
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• þissum -- demonstrative article; dative singular neuter of <ðes, ðéos, ðis> this -- this
• lande -- strong noun, neuter; dative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land # England

Þonne is þis land oð hé cymð tó Scírincges héale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg.

• þonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- then
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- continues
• þis -- demonstrative article; nominative singular neuter of <ðes, ðéos, ðis> this -- this
• land -- strong noun, neuter; nominative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land
• oð -- adverbial conjunction <oð> until -- until
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- one
• cymð -- strong verb, class IV; 3rd person singular present of <cuman, cwóm, cwómon, cumen> come -- comes
• tó -- preposition <tó> (in)to -- to
• Scírincges héale -- proper noun, masculine; dative singular of <Scíringes-héal> Skiringssal -- Skiringssal
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• ealne -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <eall> all -- all
• weg -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <weg> way -- the way
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- on
• þæt -- definite article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• bæcbord -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <bæc-bord> larboard, port side -- port side
• Norðweg -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Norðweg> Norway, lit. way leading north -- Norway

Wið súðan þone Scíringes héal fylð swýðe mycel sæ úp in on ðæt lond;

• wið súðan -- adverb <wið súðan> to the south -- to the south of
• þone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• Scíringes héal -- proper noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Scíringes-héal> Skiringssal -- Skiringssal
• fylð -- strong verb, class VII; 3rd person singular present of <feallan, féoll, féollon, feallen> fall, flow -- flows
• swýðe -- adverb <swíðe> very, exceedingly -- (a) very
• mycel -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <micel> much, great -- large
• sæ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <sæ> sea, lake -- sea
• úp -- adverb <úp> up, upwards -- up
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- to
• ðæt -- demonstrative article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> that -- that
• lond -- strong noun, neuter; accusative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land

séo is brádre þonne ænig man ofer séon mæge.

• séo -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <sé, séo, ðæt> he, she, it -- it
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• brádre -- adjective; comparative of <brád> broad, open -- wider
• þonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- than
• ænig -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <ænig> any -- any
• man -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- man
• ofer -- preposition <ofer> over, across -- across
• séon -- strong verb, class V; infinitive of <séon, seah, sægon, segen> see, look -- see # or séon, seah, sáwon/sæwon, sewen
• mæge -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular present optative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- is able to

And is Gotland on óðre healfe ongéan, and siððan Sillende.

• and -- conjunction <and> and -- ...
• is -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <béon> be, become, exist -- is
• Gotland -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Got-land> Goth land -- Jutland
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- on
• óðre -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <óðer> other, next, second -- the other
• healfe -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <healf> half, part, side -- side
• ongéan -- adverb <ongéan> against, back -- opposite
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• siððan -- adverb <siððan> since, when, afterwards -- thereafter
• Sillende -- proper noun, neuter; nominative singular of <Sillende> Zealand -- Zealand

Séo sæ líð mænig hund míla úp in on þæt land.

• séo -- definite article; nominative singular feminine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• sæ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <sæ> sea, lake -- sea
• líð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular present of <licgan, læg, lægon, legen> lie, extend, be situated -- extends
• mænig -- adjective; nominative singular of <mænig> many -- many
• hund -- numeral <hund> hundred -- hundred(s)
• míla -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <míl> mile -- of miles
• úp -- adverb <úp> up, upwards -- up
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- to
• þæt -- demonstrative article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> that -- that
• land -- strong noun, neuter; accusative singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- land

Lesson Text

Hé sæde ðæt Norðmanna land wære swýþe lang and swýðe smæl. Eal þæt his man áþer oððe ettan oððe erian mæg, þæt líð wið ðá sæ; and þæt is þéah on sumum stówum swýðe clúdig; and licgað wilde móras wið éastan and wið uppon emnlange þæm býnum lande. On þæm mórum eardiað Finnas. And þæt býne land is éasteweard brádost, and symle swá norðor swá smælre. Éastewerd hit mæg bíon syxtig míla brád, oþþe hwéne brádre; and middeweard þrítig oððe brádre; and norðeweard hé cwæð, þær hit smalost wære, þæt hit mihte béon þréora míla brád tó þæm móre; and se mór syðþan, on sumum stówum, swá brád swá man mæg on twám wucum oferféran; and on sumum stówum swá brád swá man mæg on syx dagum oferféran.

Ðonne is tóemnes þæm lande súðeweardum, on óðre healfe þæs móres, Swéoland, oþ þæt land norðeweard; and tóemnes þæm lande norðeweardum, Cwéna land. Þá Cwénas hergiað hwílum on ðá Norðmen ofer ðone mór, hwílum þá Norðmen on hý. And þær sint swíðe micle meras fersce geond þá móras; and berað þá Cwénas hyra scypu ofer land on ðá meras, and þanon hergiað on þá Norðmen; hý habbað swýðe lýtle scypa and swýðe léohte.

Óhthere sæde þæt sío scír hátte Hálgoland þe hé on búde. Hé cwæð þæt nán man ne búde be norðan him. Þonne is án port on súðeweardum þæm lande, þone man hæt Scíringes héal. Þyder hé cwæð þæt man ne mihte geseglian on ánum mónðe, gyf man on niht wícode, and ælce dæge hæfde ambyrne wind; and ealle ðá hwíle hé sceal seglian be lande. And on þæt stéorbord him bið ærest Íraland, and þonne ðá ígland þe synd betux Íralande and þissum lande. Þonne is þis land oð hé cymð tó Scírincges héale, and ealne weg on þæt bæcbord Norðweg. Wið súðan þone Scíringes héal fylð swýðe mycel sæ úp in on ðæt lond; séo is brádre þonne ænig man ofer séon mæge. And is Gotland on óðre healfe ongéan, and siððan Sillende. Séo sæ líð mænig hund míla úp in on þæt land.

Translation

He said that the land of the Norwegians was very long and very narrow. All that a man can either graze or plough extends alongside the sea; but it is however in certain places very rocky; and wild moors lie to the east and above, beside the inhabited land. On the moors live Finns. The inhabited land is broadest to the east, and ever narrower further north. To the east it may be sixty miles wide, or somewhat more; and towards the middle, thirty or more. To the north, he said, there it was narrowest, so that it might be three miles wide towards the moor; the moor afterwards, in some places, (is) as wide as one might cross in two weeks; and in some places as wide as one might cross in six days.

Then alongside that land on the south, on the other side of the moors, is Sweden, as far as that land to the north; and alongside that land on the north, the land of the Cwena people. The Cwenas sometimes conduct raids against the Norwegians across the moor, sometimes the Norwegians against them. There are very large fresh-water lakes throughout the moors; the Cwenas carry their ships over the land onto the lakes, and from there raid the Norwegians; they have very small and very light ships.

Ohthere said that the district is called Helgeland, which he lived in. He said that no one lived north of him. There is a port in the south of that land, which one calls Skiringssal. He said that one could not sail there in a month, if one anchored at night, and each day had a favorable wind; and all the while he shall sail near land. To the starboard of him is first Ireland, and then the islands that are between Ireland and this land. Then this land continues until one comes to Skiringssal, and all the way on the port side (is) Norway. To the south of the Skiringssal a very large sea flows up into that land; it is wider than any man is able to see across. Jutland is on the other side, opposite, and thereafter Zealand. The sea extends many hundreds of miles up into that land.

Grammar

16. The Anomalous Verb béon

Old English béon 'to be, become' represents another anomalous verb inherited from Proto-Germanic; this verb survives in modern English in the forms be, been, being. As with wesan (see lesson 1), not all potential variants are found in surviving texts.

There are neither preterite forms nor participles. There is a so-called "inflected infinitive" form, tó béonne '(in order) to be', which introduces a purpose.

17. The Anomalous Verb eom/is

The third Old English 'to be' verb has no [surviving] infinitive form; some authorities identify it by its 1st person singular form eom 'am', others by its 3rd singular form is 'is'. There are even fewer basic forms than with the other 'to be' verbs:

The suffix -on of sindon is sometimes present, sometimes absent, in the texts; an alternate spelling of the sind variant is sint. Variations in the subjunctive forms include síe for both the 2nd/3rd singular, and the e in the plural may be present or absent.

Negative contractions include néom, neart, and nis (see lesson texts 8 and 9).

18. Strong Verbs in Class IV

Strong Class IV verbs exhibit the four-vowel ablaut pattern -e-, -æ-, -æ-, -o- (or -u-) -- where the ablaut vowel is followed by -l-, -r-, or -m- -- in theory. In practice, some verbs in this class exhibit the effects of sound changes like those that affected Strong III verbs (recall its 4 subclasses). Again we will provide 4 example conjugations.

Our text in this lesson contains the verb beran 'bear, carry' -- the theoretical standard-bearer for this verb class, although it does exhibit an unusual vowel change in the present indicative 2nd/3rd person singular. The text in lesson 1 contains cuman 'come', which is truly exceptional; we arbitrarily select scieran 'shear' and, looking ahead to genumen (past participle of geniman) in lesson 10, niman 'take', which are rather less exceptional than cuman, to fill out the conjugation table.

Another modern English verb descended from an OE Strong IV verb found in our lesson texts is break, although in OE brecan, the liquid -r- precedes the ablaut vowel -- yet another exception to the "rules."

19. Preterite-Present Verbs in Class IV

Preterite-Present verbs were introduced and described in lesson 3, §15. Our text in this lesson (as well as lessons 1 & 2) contains the preterite-present verb sculan 'shall, ought to', which evolved into modern English shall and should; the text in lesson 3 contains onmunan 'esteem, remember, think worthy', formed from the prefix on- plus the verb munan 'remember'. We conjugate these two to illustrate the preterite-present verbs in Class IV.

20. Strong Verbs in Class V

This class is yet another with 4 subclasses. The nominal four-vowel ablaut pattern is -e-, -æ-, -æ-, -e-; however, once again, ancient sound changes not discussed here resulted in variations that we illustrate with 4 example conjugations.

The text in lesson 2 contains the verb sprecan 'speak, say'; the texts in lessons 1 & 3 contain ongietan 'grasp, understand', formed from the prefix on- plus the verb gietan 'get'; our text in this lesson contains the verbs licgan 'lie, extend, be situated' and séon 'see, look'. We conjugate these four to illustrate the strong verbs in Class V; as usual, the 4th column exhibits the greatest variability.