Old English Online

The Seafarer, with other poems including The Wanderer in lesson 8, is found in the Exeter Book, a latter 10th century volume of Anglo-Saxon poetry. The poem is an elegy, characterized by an attitude of melancholy toward earthly life while, perhaps in allegory, looking forward to the life to come.

As with The Wanderer, authorship of The Seafarer is unknown and the time-frame is uncertain; it may have originated a half century before the Exeter Book was compiled, but much clumsy modification is apparent. This is not due to problems with the book itself, as it is undamaged and the penmanship is clear. Whether some corruption is due to secondary Christian influence is not known, though it seems quite possible.

Reading and Textual Analysis

Whether a dialogue or a monologue, the poem presents two views of life at sea. Gordon, in his Anglo-Saxon Poetry (op. cit., p. 84), characterizes the debate on one side as "a dialogue in which an old sailor tells of the lonely sufferings of life at sea, and is answered by a youth who urges that it is the hardness of the life which makes it attractive," vs. the other side as "a monologue in which the speaker tells of his sufferings, but also admits the fascination of the sea." Either way, the transcendant message exposes "the fleeting nature of earthly pomps and joys."

Various parts of this poem, some included in our selection, display signs of textual corruption, disturbing the grammar and poetic structure and making some sections quite difficult to understand. Our selection includes lines 1-43, found on pp. 152-153 in: Charles T. Onions, ed. (1959), Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader in Prose and Verse, 14th edition, Oxford: Clarendon.

Mæg ic be mé sylfum         sóðgied wrecan,
síþas secgan,         hú ic geswincdagum
earfoðhwíle         oft þrówade,
bitre bréostceare         gebiden hæbbe,
gecunnad in céole         cearselda fela,
atol ýþa gewealc.

• mæg -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 1st person singular present indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- can
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• be -- preposition <be> at, by, near -- about
• mé -- 1st person pronoun; dative singular of <ic> I -- my-
• sylfum -- pronoun; dative singular of <self> self, same -- self
• sóðgied -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <sóð-gied> lit. true tale -- (a) true tale
• wrecan -- strong verb, class V; infinitive of <wrecan, wræc, wræcon, wrecen> wreak, force; tell, utter -- tell
• síþas -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <síð> journey, voyage -- (of) voyages
• secgan -- weak verb, class III; infinitive of <secgan, sægde, sægd> say -- speak
• hú -- adverbial conjunction <hú> how -- how
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• geswincdagum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <geswinc-dæg> day of toil -- (in) days of toil
• earfoðhwíle -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <earfoð-hwíl> lit. hardship-time -- a time of hardship
• oft -- adverb <oft> often, frequently -- often
• þrówade -- weak verb, class II; 1st person singular preterite of <ðrówian, ðrówade, ðrówad> endure, suffer -- endured
• bitre -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <bitre> bitter, sharp -- bitter
• bréostceare -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <bréost-cearu> anxiety, heart-care -- sadness
• gebiden -- strong verb, class I; past participle of <gebídan, gebád, gebidon, gebiden> remain; await; experience; attain -- experienced
• hæbbe -- weak verb, class III; 1st person singular present of <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- have
• gecunnad -- weak verb, class II; past participle of <gecunnian, gecunnade, gecunnad> know; try, test, make trial of -- known
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- on
• céole -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <céol> keel (of a ship) -- a ship
• cearselda -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <cear-seld> place of sorrow, care-place -- places of sorrow
• fela -- indeclinable adjective <fela> much, many -- much
• atol -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <atol> dire, repulsive -- dire
• ýþa -- strong noun, feminine; genitive plural of <ýð> wave -- of the waves
• gewealc -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <gewealc> rolling, tossing -- tossing

        Þær mec oft bigeat
nearo nihtwaco         æt nacan stefnan,
þonne hé be clifum cnossað.

• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- where
• mec -- 1st person pronoun; accusative singular of <ic> I -- me
• oft -- adverb <oft> often, frequently -- often
• bigeat -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <begietan, begeat, begéaton, begieten> get, acquire -- kept
• nearo -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <nearu> narrow; full of hardship -- an anxious
• nihtwaco -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <niht-waco> night-watch -- night-watch
• æt -- preposition <æt> at, against -- on
• nacan -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <naca> boat, ship -- of a ship
• stefnan -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <stefn> stem; prow, stern -- the prow
• þonne -- adverb <þonne> then, when -- when
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- it
• be -- preposition <be> at, by, near -- beneath
• clifum -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <clif> cliff -- the cliffs
• cnossað -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person singular present of <cnossian, cnossode, cnossod> drive, pitch -- drives

        Calde geþrungen
wæron fét míne         forste gebunden,
caldum clommum;         þær þá ceare seofedun
hát(e) ymb heortan;         hungor innan slát
merewérges mód.

• calde -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <ceald> cold -- cold
• geþrungen -- strong verb, class III; past participle of <þringan, þrong, þrungon, þrungen> throng, crowd, press -- pressed
• wæron -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were
• fét -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <fót> foot -- feet
• míne -- 1st person possessive pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ic> I -- my
• forste -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <forst> frost -- by the frost
• gebunden -- strong verb, class III; past participle of <bindan, bond, bundon, bunden> bind, tie -- bound
• caldum -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <ceald> cold -- (in) frigid
• clommum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <clom> bond, fetter; grasp -- fetters
• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- where
• þá -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- ...
• ceare -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <cearu> care, grief, sorrow -- sorrows
• seofedun -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person plural preterite of <seofian, seofade, seofad> sigh, lament -- sighed
• háte -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <hát> hot, fervid -- hot
• ymb -- preposition <ymbe> at, around -- around
• heortan -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <heorte> heart -- (my) heart
• hungor -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hungor> hunger -- hunger
• innan -- preposition used as adverb <innan> in, within -- within
• slát -- strong verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <slítan, slát, sliton, sliten> slit, tear -- gnawed
• merewérges -- adjective <mere-wérig> sea-weary -- a sea-weary
• mód -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <mód> mood, mind -- mood

        Þæt se mon ne wát,
þe him on foldan         fægrost limpeð,
hú ic earmcearig         íscealdne sæ
winter wunade         wræccan lástum
winemægum bidroren         ...

• þæt -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <sé, séo, ðæt> that -- ...
• se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, séo, ðæt> the -- the
• mon -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- man
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- not
• wát -- preterite-present verb, class I; 3rd person singular present indicative of <witan, wát, witon, wiste> know, observe -- does ... know
• þe -- relative particle <þe> that, which, who -- ...
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- to whom
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- on
• foldan -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <folde> earth, ground -- earth
• fægrost -- adverb; superlative of <fæger> fairly, beautifully -- most happily
• limpeð -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person singular present of <limpan, lamp, lumpon, lumpen> befall, happen -- (everything) happens
• hú -- conjunction <hú> how -- how
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• earmcearig -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <earm-cearig> miserable, lit. wretched-caring -- wretched
• íscealdne -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ís-ceald> ice-cold -- an ice-cold
• sæ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <sæ> sea, lake -- at sea
• winter -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <winter> winter, year -- winter
• wunade -- weak verb, class II; 1st person singular preterite of <wunian, wunode, wunod> dwell, live, remain -- spent
• wræccan -- weak noun, masculine; genitive singular of <wrecca> wretch, exile -- of exile
• lástum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <lást> track, footprint -- in the paths
• winemægum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <wine-mæg> dear-, lit. friend-kinsman -- kinsmen
• bidroren -- strong verb, class II; past participle of <bedréosan, bedréas, bedruron, bedroren> bereave, deprive of -- bereft of

bihongen hrímgicelum:         hægl scúrum fléag.

• bihongen -- strong verb, class VII; past participle of <behón, behéng, behéngon, behongen> hang round -- behung
• hrímgicelum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <hrím-gicel> icicle -- with icicles
• hægl -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hagol> hail -- the hail
• scúrum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <scúr> shower -- in showers
• fléag -- strong verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <fléogan, fléag, flugon, flogen> flee, fly -- flew

Þær ic ne gehýrde         bútan hlimman sæ,
íscaldne wæg,         hwílum ylfete song:

• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- there
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- no(thing)
• gehýrde -- weak verb, class I; 1st person singular preterite of <gehíeran, gehíerede, gehíered> hear (of) -- heard
• bútan -- preposition <búton> without, except for -- but
• hlimman -- strong verb, class III; infinitive of <hlimman, hlamm, hlumon, hlummen> roar, resound -- roar
• sæ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <sæ> sea, lake -- the sea
• íscaldne -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ís-ceald> ice-cold -- ice-cold
• wæg -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <wæg> wave, billow -- billow
• hwílum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <hwíl> while, time -- sometimes
• ylfete -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ilfetu> swan -- of a swan
• song -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <song> song -- the song

dyde ic mé tó gomene         ganetes hléoþor
and huilpan swég         fore hleahtor wera,
mæw singende         fore medodrince.

• dyde -- anomalous verb; 1st person singular preterite indicative of <dón> do, make -- made
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• mé -- 1st person pronoun; dative singular of <ic> I -- my own # "for myself"
• tó -- preposition <tó> (in)to -- for
• gomene -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <gomen> pastime, pleasure, entertainment -- amusement
• ganetes -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ganot> gannet, goose -- the gannet's
• hléoþor -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <hléoðor> song, sound -- song
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• huilpan -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <hwilpe> curlew? water-bird -- the water-bird's
• swég -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <swég> noise, sound -- call
• fore -- preposition <fore> for, before -- for
• hleahtor -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <hleahtor> laughter, jubilation -- the laughter
• wera -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <wer> man -- of men
• mæw -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <mæw> mew, sea-gull -- mew
• singende -- strong verb, class III; present participle of <singan, sang, sungon, sungen> sing, compose -- singing
• fore -- preposition <fore> for, before -- for
• medodrince -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <medu-drinc> mead-drink -- mead-drink(ing)

Stormas þær stánclifu béotan,         þær him stearn oncwæð
ísigfeþera;         ful oft þæt earn bigeal
úrigfeþra.

• stormas -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <storm> storm, tempest; attack -- storms
• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- there
• stánclifu -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <stán-clif> stony cliff -- stony cliffs
• béotan -- strong verb, class VII; 3rd person plural preterite of <béatan, béot, béoton, béaten> beat, pound, strike -- pounded
• þær -- adverb <þær> there, where -- where
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- to them
• stearn -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <stearn> tern, sea-swallow -- sea-swallow
• oncwæð -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <oncweðan, oncwæð, oncwædon, oncweden> answer, reply to -- replied
• ísigfeþera -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <ísig-feðera> lit. icy-feathered -- with frosted wings
• ful -- adverb <ful> fully, completely -- ...
• oft -- adverb <oft> often, frequently -- often
• þæt -- demonstrative article; accusative singular neuter of <se, séo, ðæt> that -- ... # the referent is highly uncertain
• earn -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <earn> eagle -- the eagle
• bigeal -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <begiellan, begeall, begullon, begollen> yell, scream, screech -- screamed
• úrigfeþra -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <úrig-feðera> lit. dewey-feathered -- dewey-winged

        Nænig hléomæga
féasceaftig ferð         fréfran meahte.

• nænig -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + adjective <ænig> any -- no
• hléomæga -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <hléo-mæg> lit. protector-kinsman -- protective kinsmen # corrupt text?
• féasceaftig -- adjective <féasceaftig> poor, destitute -- the poor
• ferð -- noun, masculine /nt;acc.sg. of <ferð> mind, soul, spirit -- in spirit
• fréfran -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <fréfran, fréfrede, fréfred> cheer, comfort -- cheer
• meahte -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <magan, mæg, magon, meahte> may, be able to -- might

For þon him gelýfeð lýt         sé þe áh lífes wyn
gebiden in burgum,         bealosíþa hwón,
wlonc and wíngál,         hú ic wérig oft
in brimláde         bídan sceolde.

• for þon -- conjunction <for þon> because, therefore -- because
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- ...
• gelýfeð -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular present of <gelíefan, gelíefde, gelíefed> grant; believe, trust -- trusts
• lýt -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <lýt> little, small number -- little
• sé -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <sé, séo, ðæt> he, she, it -- he
• þe -- relative particle <þe> that, which, who -- who
• áh -- preterite-present verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <ágan, áh, ágon, áhte> have, possess -- has
• lífes -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <líf> life -- life's
• wyn -- strong noun, feminine; nominative singular of <wynn> joy, delight -- joy
• gebiden -- strong verb, class I; past participle of <gebídan, gebád, gebidon, gebiden> remain; await; experience; attain -- experienced
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• burgum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <burg> enclosure, stonghold -- cities
• bealosíþa -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <bealu-síð> peril, calamity. lit. harm-journey -- (with) perils
• hwón -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <hwón> trifle -- few
• wlonc -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <wlonc> proud -- proud
• and -- conjunction <and> and -- and
• wíngál -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <wín-gál> intoxicated, lit. wine-gay -- intoxicated
• hú -- conjunction <hú> how -- how
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• wérig -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <wérig> weary, exhausted -- exhausted
• oft -- adverb <oft> often, frequently -- often
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• brimláde -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <brim-lád> path of the sea, lit. sea lane -- the sea lane
• bídan -- strong verb, class I; infinitive of <bídan, bád, bidon, biden> bide, endure, remain -- remain
• sceolde -- modal (preterit-present) verb, class IV; 1st person singular preterite indicative of <sculan, sceal, sculon, scolde> shall, ought to -- must

Náp nihtscua,         norþan sníwde,
hrím hrúsan bond;         hægl féol on eorþan,
corna caldast.

• náp -- strong verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <nípan, náp, nipon, nipen> grow dark, obscure -- grew dark
• nihtscua -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <nihts-cúa> night's cover -- night's shadow
• norþan -- adverb <norðan> from the north -- from the north
• sníwde -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <sníwan, sníwde, sníwed> snow -- it snowed
• hrím -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hrím> rime, hoar-frost -- hoar-frost
• hrúsan -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <hrúse> earth, ground -- the soil
• bond -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <bindan, bond, bundon, bunden> bind, tie -- bound
• hægl -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hagol> hail -- hail
• féol -- strong verb, class VII; 3rd person singular preterite of <feallan, féoll, féollon, feallen> fall, flow -- fell
• on -- preposition <on> on(to), upon -- upon
• eorþan -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <eorð> earth -- earth
• corna -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <corn> corn, grain -- of grains
• caldast -- adjective; superlative of <ceald> cold -- the coldest

        For þon cnyssað nú
heortan geþóhtas,         þæt ic héan stréamas,
sealtýþa gelác         sylf cunnige;

• for þon -- conjunction <for þon> because, therefore -- therefore
• cnyssað -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person plural present of <cnyssan, cnysede, cnysed> beat, strike -- it strikes
• nú -- adverb <nú> now -- now
• heortan -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <heorte> heart -- of the heart
• geþóhtas -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <geðóht> thought -- the thoughts
• þæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• héan -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <héan> abject, depressed, miserable -- the humble
• stréamas -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <stréam> stream -- streams
• sealtýþa -- strong noun, feminine; genitive plural of <sealt-ýð> lit. salt-wave -- of sea waves
• gelác -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <gelác> tumult, commotion -- the tumult
• sylf -- reflexive pronoun <self> self, same -- (my)self
• cunnige -- weak verb, class II; 1st person singular present subjunctive of <cunnian, cunnode, cunnod> seek, explore, experience -- (should) test

monað módes lust         mæla gehwylce
ferð tó féran,         þæt ic feor heonan
elþéodigra         eard geséce.

• monað -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person singular present of <manian, manode, manod> warn, exhort, admonish -- urges
• módes -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <mód> mood, mind -- the mind's
• lust -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <lust> lust, desire, pleasure -- desire
• mæla -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <mæl> time, occasion -- times
• gehwylce -- indefinite pronoun; instrumental singular masculine of <gehwylc> each, every one -- at all
• ferð -- noun, masculine /nt;acc.sg. of <ferð> mind, soul, spirit -- the spirit
• tó -- preposition <tó> (in)to -- to
• féran -- weak verb, class I; infinitive of <féran, férde, féred> go, travel -- travel
• þæt -- conjunction <þæt> so/in order that -- so that
• ic -- 1st person pronoun; nominative singular of <ic> I -- I
• feor -- adverb <feor> far (from) -- far
• heonan -- adverb <heonon> hence -- hence
• elþéodigra -- adjective used as noun <elðéodig> alien, foreign, strange -- of foreigners
• eard -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <eard> home, land -- the land
• geséce -- weak verb, class I; 1st person singular present of <gesécan, gesóhte, gesóht> seek, desire -- seek

For þon nis þæs módwlonc         mon ofer eorþan,
ne his gifena þæs gód,         ne in geoguþe tó þæs hwæt,
ne in his dædum tó þæs déor,

• for þon -- conjunction <for þon> because, therefore -- because
• nis -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <is> be, become, exist -- is not
• þæs -- adverb <þæs> so -- so
• módwlonc -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <mód-wlonc> haughty, lit. mood-proud -- proud
• mon -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <monn> man, person -- a man
• ofer -- preposition <ofer> over, across -- on
• eorþan -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <eorð> earth -- earth
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- nor
• his -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- his
• gifena -- strong noun, feminine; genitive plural of <giefu> gift, favor -- of ... gifts
• þæs -- adverb <þæs> so -- so
• gód -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <gód> good, excellent -- generous
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- nor
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• geoguþe -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <geogoð> youth, youngster -- youth
• tó þæs -- adverb <tó þæs> so -- quite so
• hwæt -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <hwætt> bold, valiant -- bold
• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- nor
• in -- preposition <in> in, into -- in
• his -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- his
• dædum -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <dæd> deed, action -- deeds
• tó þæs -- adverb <tó þæs> so -- quite so
• déor -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <déor> brave, valiant -- valiant

        ne him his dryhten tó þæs hold,
þæt hé á his sæfóre         sorge næbbe,
tó hwon hine Dryhten         gedón wille.

• ne -- adverb <ne> not -- nor
• him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- to him
• his -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- his
• dryhten -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <drihten> lord, prince, ruler -- lord
• tó þæs -- adverb <tó þæs> so -- quite so
• hold -- adjective <hold> gracious, favorable -- gracious
• þæt -- subordinating conjunction <þæt> that -- that
• hé -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- he
• á -- adverb <á> always, ever -- never # negative sense from næbbe, below
• his -- 3rd person possessive pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- his
• sæfóre -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <sæ-fór> sea-voyage -- sea travel
• sorge -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <sorg> sorrow, grief, distress -- anxiety
• næbbe -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + weak verb, class III; 3rd person singular present subjunctive <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- has # negative used above
• tó hwon -- interrogative pronoun; instrumental singular of <tó hwon> why -- to what end
• hine -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hé, héo, hit> he, she, it -- him
• dryhten -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <drihten> lord, prince, ruler -- the Lord
• gedón -- anomalous verb; past participle of <gedón> act, do, bring to pass -- bring
• wille -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular present indicative of <willan> wish, be willing -- will

Lesson Text

Mæg ic be mé sylfum         sóðgied wrecan,
síþas secgan,         hú ic geswincdagum
earfoðhwíle         oft þrówade,
bitre bréostceare         gebiden hæbbe,
gecunnad in céole         cearselda fela,
atol ýþa gewealc.         Þær mec oft bigeat
nearo nihtwaco         æt nacan stefnan,
þonne hé be clifum cnossað.         Calde geþrungen
wæron fét míne         forste gebunden,
caldum clommum;         þær þá ceare seofedun
hát(e) ymb heortan;         hungor innan slát
merewérges mód.         Þæt se mon ne wát,
þe him on foldan         fægrost limpeð,
hú ic earmcearig         íscealdne sæ
winter wunade         wræccan lástum
winemægum bidroren         ...
bihongen hrímgicelum:         hægl scúrum fléag.
Þær ic ne gehýrde         bútan hlimman sæ,
íscaldne wæg,         hwílum ylfete song:
dyde ic mé tó gomene         ganetes hléoþor
and huilpan swég         fore hleahtor wera,
mæw singende         fore medodrince.
Stormas þær stánclifu béotan,         þær him stearn oncwæð
ísigfeþera;         ful oft þæt earn bigeal
úrigfeþra.         Nænig hléomæga
féasceaftig ferð         fréfran meahte.
For þon him gelýfeð lýt         sé þe áh lífes wyn
gebiden in burgum,         bealosíþa hwón,
wlonc and wíngál,         hú ic wérig oft
in brimláde         bídan sceolde.
Náp nihtscua,         norþan sníwde,
hrím hrúsan bond;         hægl féol on eorþan,
corna caldast.         For þon cnyssað nú
heortan geþóhtas,         þæt ic héan stréamas,
sealtýþa gelác         sylf cunnige;
monað módes lust         mæla gehwylce
ferð tó féran,         þæt ic feor heonan
elþéodigra         eard geséce.
For þon nis þæs módwlonc         mon ofer eorþan,
ne his gifena þæs gód,         ne in geoguþe tó þæs hwæt,
ne in his dædum tó þæs déor,         ne him his dryhten tó þæs hold,
þæt hé á his sæfóre         sorge næbbe,
tó hwon hine Dryhten         gedón wille.

Translation

I can tell a true tale about myself, of voyages speak, how in days of toil I often endured a time of hardship, experienced bitter sadness, have known on a ship places of sorrow, much dire tossing of the waves. Where an anxious night-watch often kept me on the prow of a ship when it drives beneath the cliffs. My feet were pressed cold, bound in frigid fetters by the frost; where sorrows sighed hot around my heart; hunger gnawed within, a sea-weary mood. The man does not know, to whom everything happens most happily on earth, how wretched I spent an ice-cold winter at sea in the paths of exile bereft of kinsmen... behung with icicles: the hail flew in showers. There I heard nothing but the sea roar, ice-cold billow, sometimes the song of a swan: I made for my own amusement the gannet's song and the water-bird's call for the laughter of men, mew singing for mead-drinking. Storms there pounded stony cliffs, where sea-swallow replied to them with frosted wings; often the eagle screamed dewey-winged. No protective kinsmen might cheer the poor in spirit. Because he trusts little who has experienced life's joy in cities, with perils few, proud and intoxicated, how often I must remain exhausted in the sea lane. Night's shadow grew dark, from the north it snowed, hoar-frost bound the soil; hail fell upon earth, the coldest of grains. Therefore it strikes now the thoughts of the heart, that I the humble streams, the tumult of sea waves myself should test; the mind's desire urges at all times the spirit to travel, so that I seek far hence the land of foreigners. Because (there) is not a man on earth so proud, nor of his gifts so generous, nor in youth quite so bold, nor in his deeds quite so valiant, nor to him his lord quite so gracious, that he never has anxiety (about) his sea travel, (or) to what end the Lord will bring him.

Grammar

41. The Anomalous Verb dón

The text in lesson 2 introduced the 3rd person singular preterite indicative form dyde of the anomalous verb dón 'do, make'. The preterite dyde is found also in this lesson text, along with the related infinitive gedón 'act, do, bring to pass', and the plural preterite dydon is found in the following lesson. Forms of dón are reflected in the following table:

dón		Indicative		Subjunctive		Imperative
1 Sg. Pres.		dó		dó
2 Sg. Pres.		dést		dó		dó
3 Sg. Pres.		déð		dó
Pl. Pres.		dóð		dón		dóð
1 Sg. Pret.		dyde		dyde
2 Sg. Pret.		dydest		dyde
3 Sg. Pret.		dyde		dyde
Pl. Pret.		dydon		dyden

The present participle is dónde, and the past participle is gedón. The modern English forms do, did, and the so-called "King James English" forms dost, doth, are descended from forms of dón.

42. Reflexive Pronouns

Various forms of the pronoun self appear in our lesson texts, including sylf and sylfum in this lesson and other forms in lessons 5 and 7. However, reflexive pronouns equivalent to modern English 'myself', 'yourself', etc., had not yet developed in Old English. Instead, forms of the personal pronouns ic, ðú, and hé, héo, hit might be used without self in a reflexive sense (for example mé in dyde ic mé in this lesson text); or in some instances one of these might be followed by a form of the [separate] pronoun self (for example mé sylfum in this lesson text); or sometimes a form of self appears alone (for example sylf in this lesson text), leaving the question of "who?" up to the hearer/reader of the text.

43. Weak Adjective Declension

The declension of an OE adjective can be either weak (a.k.a. definite) or strong (a.k.a. indefinite), depending on context. This is unlike noun inflection, in which a noun itself belongs to either a weak or a strong declension category. Weak adjective declension rules, which employ fewer distinct inflectional endings, tend to be used in the following situations:

1. the adjective follows a demonstrative or possessive pronoun; or
2. it is in the vocative case (used for direct address); or
3. it is a comparative or superlative form; or
4. it is used in poetry.

These rules are not applied with absolute consistency, but they do represent strong tendencies. The gender, case, and number of an adjective depend on those of the noun it modifies. (Adjectives have no inherent grammatical gender.) Verb participles are declined like adjectives; and ordinal numerals, in particular, are inflected using weak adjective declension with but two exceptions.

The following table illustrates weak adjective declension using OE gód 'good, excellent', which appears in our lesson text; the endings in this declension can be seen to parallel those in the n-stem weak noun declension (lesson 8, §36) where, among other things, plural forms do not vary with gender.

Weak		Sg.Masc.		Sg.Fem.		Sg.Neut.		Plural
Nom/Voc.		góda		góde		góde		gódan
Gen.		gódan		gódan		gódan		gódena
Dat.		gódan		gódan		gódan		gódum
Acc.		gódan		gódan		góde		gódan

Spelling Notes

Adjectives ending in -h (e.g. héah 'high', wóh 'wrong', not shown) are inflected with contraction, including but not limited to loss of -h (e.g. héan, genitive plural wóna). The ending -an may be spelled -on; the genitive plural ending -ena may be spelled -ra; the dative plural ending -um may be spelled -un or -on.

44. Strong Adjective Declension

When the "rules" for weak adjective declension (1-4 in §43) do not apply, strong declension is used. The forms again depend on the gender, case, and number of the noun being modified; however, they also depend on the stem-vowel of the adjective itself (review §32 in lesson 7 for the meaning of "stem"). There are only two strong declension categories to which an adjective stem can be assigned:

1. a-stems, o-stems, and some u-stems; or
2. ja-stems, jo-stems, wa-stems, wo-stems, i-stems, and the remaining u-stems.

The adjective gód 'good, excellent', which appears in our lesson text, belongs to the first category; we use it to illustrate the 1st strong adjective declension. The adjective gearo (also spelled gearu) 'prepared, ready', which appears in the text for lesson 3, is used to illustrate the 2nd strong adjective declension.

Strong 1		Masc.		Fem.		Neut.
Nom.Sg.		gód		gód		gód
Gen.Sg.		gódes		gódre		gódes
Dat.Sg.		gódum		gódre		gódum
Acc.Sg.		gódne		góde		gód
Ins.Sg.		góde				góde
Nom.Pl.		góde		góda		gód
Gen.Pl.		gódra		gódra		gódra
Dat.Pl.		gódum		gódum		gódum
Acc.Pl.		góde		góda		gód
Ins.Pl.		gódum		gódum		gódum

Spelling Notes

The ending -re may be spelled -ere; the ending -um may be spelled -on or -an. The nominative/accusative plural, either feminine or neuter, may be spelled góde. The ending -ra may be spelled -era.

Strong 2		Masc.		Fem.		Neut.
Nom.Sg.		gearo		gearo		gearo
Gen.Sg.		gearwes		gearore		gearwes
Dat.Sg.		gearwum		gearore		gearwum
Acc.Sg.		gearone		gearwe		gearo
Ins.Sg.		gearwe				gearwe
Nom.Pl.		gearwe		gearwa		gearwe
Gen.Pl.		gearora		gearora		gearora
Dat.Pl.		gearwum		gearwum		gearwum
Acc.Pl.		gearora		gearora		gearora
Ins.Pl.		gearwum		gearwum		gearwum

Spelling Notes

The feminine forms gearore may be spelled gearre; similarly, the genitive plural forms gearora may be spelled gearra.

45. Spelling Variation

As noted previously, several times, OE spelling was never fully standardized -- although King Alfred did make an attempt to do so. Rather, words were spelled as they sounded, which presents both benefits and drawbacks to those studying the language. We present a table below that may help the reader find an unknown word if it doesn't appear, as originally spelled, in a dictionary. This table does not attempt to help the reader parse & remove inflectional endings, other affixes, or ablaut effects -- that task is addressed throughout these lessons. Instead, the table below suggests "equivalent spellings" -- letter sequences that may be substituted for one another because OE scribes made such substitutions based on fine details of the sounds they heard.

Each row lists, left to right, "equivalent spellings." There is no significance to the order of elements right of the '=' sign; the rows are alphabetized, top to bottom. The entries in this table are drawn, with augmentation, from Henry Sweet (1896, op. cit.) who notes, "unaccented vowels are disregarded."

a		=		æ		ea
æ		=		a		æg		e		ea
æi		=		æig		æg
æo		=		ea
b		=		f
c		=		g		h
ce		=		c
ch		=		c		h
ci		=		c
cs		=		sc		x
ct		=		ht
d		=		ð		þ
dd		=		ðd		þd
ds		=		ts
e		=		æ		ea		eg		eo		ie		y
ea		=		æ		a		eo		gea		i
ei		=		e		eg
eo		=		e		ea		geo		i		ie		oe
eu		=		eo		eow
ew		=		eow
f		=		w
fn		=		mn
g		=		h		w		x
ge		=		g
gg		=		cg
gi		=		g
gu		=		geo
h		=		c		g
hs		=		sc		x
i		=		eo		g		ie		ig		ige		y
ia		=		eo
ig		=		i
io		=		eo
iu		=		eo		geo
iw		=		eow
k		=		c
m		=		mn		n
nc		=		cen		cn		ng
ng		=		gen		gn
o		=		a		og
oe		=		e		æ
ps		=		sp
pt		=		ft
qu		=		cw
sc		=		s
sce		=		sc
sci		=		sc
sð		=		st		sþ
sþ		=		st		sð
t		=		ð		þ
th		=		ð		þ
ð		=		þ
þ		=		ð
u		=		f		ug		v		w
uu		=		ú		w
v		=		f
weo		=		wo		wu
wi		=		wu
wo		=		weo
wu		=		w		weo		wo		wy
wy		=		weo		wi
x		=		cs		hs		sc
y		=		e		i		ie		yg