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Odysseus' ordeals during the ten years on his way home after the sacking of Troy are recited in some three thousand fewer lines than the Iliad. The Odyssey is a relatively straightforward description of his adventures during his travels by sea, and of the peoples he met before he reached his homeland in Ithaca. But the remarkable eleventh book includes a descent into Hades, where Odysseus learns, among other references to heroes of the past, what happened to Agamemnon and Achilles, his fellows at Troy. That is one of the most striking sections of the epic, with a major effect on Dante's Divine Comedy. As the epic ends, Odysseus resumes his position as the major figure in a small rural society, with his chief retainers being the keepers of his swine and his cattle.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The outline of the Odyssey is given in the first ten lines, and the first word indicates its chief theme, "a man."

Andra moi ennepe, Mousa, polutropon, hos mala polla

• andra -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <anêr> man -- man
• moi -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <egô> I -- me
• ennepe -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <enepô> tell, tell of -- tell ... of
• Mousa -- noun; vocative singular feminine of <Mousa> Muse -- O Muse
• polutropon -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <polutropos> much-turned, much-traveled -- much-traveled
• hos -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hos> who, which -- who
• mala -- adverb; <mala> very -- very
• polla -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <polus> many -- in many ways

plagchthê, epei Troiês hieron ptoliethron epersen;

• plagchthê -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist passive of <plazô> wander, toss -- was tossed about
• epei -- conjunction; <epei> when, after -- after
• Troiês -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <Troiê> Troy -- Troy
• hieron -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <hieros> sacred -- sacred
• ptoliethron -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <ptoliethron> city -- city
• epersen -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <perthô> destroy, sack -- he had sacked

pollôn d' anthrôpôn iden astea kai noon egnô,

• pollôn -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <polus> many -- of many
• d' -- particle; <de> and, on the other hand -- and
• anthrôpôn -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <anthrôpos> human being -- men
• iden -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <eidô> see, know -- he saw
• astea -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <astu> city -- the cities
• kai -- conjunction; <kai> and -- and
• noon -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <noos> mind -- (their) mind
• egnô -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <gignôskô> know, learn -- learned

polla d' ho g' en pontô pathen algea hon kata thumon,

• polla -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <polus> many -- many
• d' -- particle; <de> and, on the other hand -- and
• ho -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ho> the -- he
• g' -- particle; <ge> indeed -- ...
• en -- preposition; <en> in -- on
• pontô -- noun; dative singular masculine of <pontos> sea -- the sea
• pathen -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <paschô> suffer -- suffered
• algea -- noun; accusative plural neuter of <algos> woe -- woes
• hon -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hos> his -- his
• kata -- preposition; <kata> completely, down, under -- in
• thumon -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <thumos> soul, heart -- heart

arnumenos hên te psuchên kai noston hetairôn.

• arnumenos -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle middle of <arnumai> win -- seeking to save
• hên -- possessive pronoun, accusative singular feminine of <hos> his -- his
• te -- conjunction; <te> and -- ...
• psuchên -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <psuchê> soul -- life
• kai -- conjunction; <kai> and -- and
• noston -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <nostos> return -- the return
• hetairôn -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <hetairos> comrade -- of his comrades

all' oud' hôs hetarous errusato, hiemenos per;

• all' -- conjunction; <alla> but -- but
• oud' -- particle; <oude> not -- not even
• hôs -- adverb; <hôs> as, thus -- thus
• hetarous -- noun; accusative plural masculine <hetaros> comrade -- comrades
• errusato -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <hruomai> save -- did he save
• hiemenos -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <hiemai> desire -- desiring
• per -- adverb; <per> although -- although

autôn gar spheterêsin atasthaliêsin olonto,

• autôn -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <autos> oneself, he -- their
• gar -- conjunction; <gar> for -- for
• spheterêsin -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <spheteros> own -- own
• atasthaliêsin -- noun; dative plural feminine of <atasthalia> folly -- folly
• olonto -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ollumai> perish -- they perished

nêpioi, hoi kata bous Huperionos Êelioio

• nêpioi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <nêpios> childish, foolish -- fools
• hoi -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hos> who, which -- who
• kata -- adverb; <kata> completely, down, under -- ...
• bous -- noun; accusative plural masculine of <bous> cow, ox -- cattle
• Huperionos -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Huperiôn> Hyperion -- of Hyperion
• Êelioio -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Êelios> Helios -- Helios

êsthion; autar ho toisin apheileto nostimon hêmar.

• êsthion -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <esthiô> eat -- devoured
• autar -- conjunction; <autar> but -- but
• ho -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ho> the -- he
• toisin -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ho> the -- them
• apheileto -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <aphaireô> take away -- took away from
• nostimon -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <nostimos> returning -- of return
• hêmar -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <hêmar> day -- day

tôn hamothen ge, thea, thugater Dios, eipe kai hêmin.

• tôn -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ho> the -- of these things
• hamothen -- adverb; <hamothen> from any point -- beginning at any stage
• ge -- particle; <ge> indeed -- indeed
• thea -- noun; vocative singular feminine of <thea> goddess -- O goddess
• thugater -- noun; vocative singular feminine of <thugatêr> daughter -- daughter
• Dios -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Zeus> Zeus -- of Zeus
• eipe -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <legô> say -- tell
• kai -- conjunction; <kai> and -- and
• hêmin -- pronoun; dative plural of <egô> I -- us

Enth' alloi men pantes, hosoi phugon aipun olethron,

• enth' -- adverb; <entha> then, there -- then
• alloi -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <allos> other -- the others
• men -- particle; <men> on the one hand -- indeed
• pantes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <pas> all, every -- all
• hosoi -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <hosos> as many -- whoever
• phugon -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <pheugô> escape, flee -- had escaped
• aipun -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <aipus> deep -- sheer
• olethron -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <olethros> destruction -- destruction

oikoi esan, polemon te pepheugotes êde thalassan;

• oikoi -- adverb; <oikoi> at home -- at home
• esan -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <eimi> I am -- were
• polemon -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <polemos> war -- the war
• te -- conjunction; <te> and -- and
• pepheugotes -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle of <pheugô> escape, flee -- having escaped
• êde -- conjunction; <êde> and, also -- also
• thalassan -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <thalassa> sea -- the sea

ton d' oion nostou kechrêmenon êde gunaikos,

• ton -- article used as pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ho> the -- him
• d' -- particle; <de> and, on the other hand -- but
• oion -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <oios> alone -- alone
• nostou -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <nostos> return -- return
• kechrêmenon -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <chraomai> need, use -- longing for
• êde -- conjunction; <êde> and, also -- also
• gunaikos -- noun; genitive singular feminine of <gunê> woman -- wife

numphê potni' eruke Kalupsô dia theaôn

• numphê -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <numphê> nymph -- nymph
• potni' -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <potnia> revered, queenly -- the queenly
• eruke -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <erukô> hold back -- held back
• Kalupsô -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <Kalupsô> Calypso -- Calypso
• dia -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <dios> godlike, noble -- splendid
• theaôn -- noun; genitive plural feminine of <thea> goddess -- among the goddesses

en spessi glaphuroisi, lilaiomenê posin einai.

• en -- preposition; <en> in -- in
• spessi -- noun; dative plural neuter of <speos> cave, grotto -- grotto
• glaphuroisi -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <glaphuros> hollow -- hollow
• lilaiomenê -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <lilaiomai> desire -- desiring
• posin -- noun; accusative singular masculine of <posis> husband -- husband
• einai -- verb; infinitive of <eimi> I am -- to be

all' hote dê etos êlthe periplomenôn eniautôn,

• all' -- conjunction; <alla> but -- but
• hote -- conjunction; <hote> when -- when
• dê -- particle; <dê> indeed -- ...
• etos -- noun; nominative singular neuter of <etos> year -- the year
• êlthe -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <erchomai> come, go -- came
• periplomenôn -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present middle participle of <peripelomai> revolve -- revolved
• eniautôn -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <eniautos> year -- years

tô hoi epeklôsanto theoi oikonde neesthai

• tô -- article used as pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ho> the -- for him
• hoi -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ho> the -- the
• epeklôsanto -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist middle of <epiklôthô> spin; decide -- had decided
• theoi -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <theos> god -- gods
• oikonde -- adverb; <oikonde> to his home -- home
• neesthai -- verb; infinitive middle of <neomai> return -- (he should) return

eis Ithakên, oud' entha pephugmenos êen aethlôn

• eis -- preposition; <eis> towards -- to
• Ithakên -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <Ithakê> Ithaca -- Ithaca
• oud' -- particle; <oude> not -- not even
• entha -- adverb; <entha> then, there -- there
• pephugmenos -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <pheugô> escape, flee -- be away from
• êen -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <eimi> go -- had he
• aethlôn -- noun; genitive plural masculine of <aethlos> battle, woe -- woes

kai meta hoisi philoisi. theoi d' eleairon hapantes

• kai -- conjunction; <kai> and -- even
• meta -- preposition; <meta> after, with -- with
• hoisi -- possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <hos> his -- his
• philoisi -- noun; dative plural masculine of <philos> dear, friend -- friends
• theoi -- noun; nominative plural masculine of <theos> god -- gods
• d' -- particle; <de> and, on the other hand -- and
• eleairon -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <eleairô> pity -- pitied
• hapantes -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <hapas> all -- all

nosphi Poseidaônos; ho d' asperches meneainen

• nosphi -- preposition; <nosphi> apart, afar, except -- except
• Poseidaônos -- noun; genitive singular masculine of <Poseidaôn> Poseidon -- Poseidon
• ho -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ho> the -- he
• d' -- particle; <de> and, on the other hand -- but
• asperches -- adverb; <asperches> unceasingly -- unceasingly
• meneainen -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <menainô> rage -- raged

antitheô Odusêi paros hên gaian hikesthai.

• antitheô -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <antitheos> godlike -- godlike
• Odusêi -- noun; dative singular masculine of <Oduseus> Odysseus -- Odysseus
• paros -- conjunction; <paros> until -- until
• hên -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <hos> his -- his
• gaian -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <gaia> land -- homeland
• hikesthai -- deponent verb; infinitive aorist middle of <hikneomai> reach -- (he) reached

Lesson Text

Andra moi ennepe, Mousa, polutropon, hos mala polla
plagchthê, epei Troiês hieron ptoliethron epersen;
pollôn d' anthrôpôn iden astea kai noon egnô,
polla d' ho g' en pontô pathen algea hon kata thumon,
arnumenos hên te psuchên kai noston hetairôn.
all' oud' hôs hetarous errusato, hiemenos per;
autôn gar spheterêsin atasthaliêsin olonto,
nêpioi, hoi kata bous Huperionos Êelioio
êsthion; autar ho toisin apheileto nostimon hêmar.
tôn hamothen ge, thea, thugater Dios, eipe kai hêmin.
Enth' alloi men pantes, hosoi phugon aipun olethron,
oikoi esan, polemon te pepheugotes êde thalassan;
ton d' oion nostou kechrêmenon êde gunaikos,
numphê potni' eruke Kalupsô dia theaôn
en spessi glaphuroisi, lilaiomenê posin einai.
all' hote dê etos êlthe periplomenôn eniautôn,
tô hoi epeklôsanto theoi oikonde neesthai
eis Ithakên, oud' entha pephugmenos êen aethlôn
kai meta hoisi philoisi. theoi d' eleairon hapantes
nosphi Poseidaônos; ho d' asperches meneainen
antitheô Odusêi paros hên gaian hikesthai.

Translation

Tell me, O Muse, of the much-traveled man, who wandered many ways after he had sacked the sacred city of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and learned their mind. Then he suffered woes in his heart on the sea, seeking to save his life and the return of his comrades. But not even so did he save his comrades, although desiring it greatly. They perished through their own folly, fools, who devoured the cattle of Hyperion Helios. But he took away from them the day of return. Of these things tell also to us, o goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning at any stage.

Then all the others indeed, whoever had escaped sheer destruction, were at home having escaped the war and also the sea. But him alone, longing for his return and also his wife, the queenly nymph, Calypso, splendid among the goddesses, held back in her hollow grotto, desiring him to be her husband. But when the year came as the years revolved, in which the gods had decided he should return home to Ithaca, not even then did he escape woes, even with his friends. And all the gods pitied him except Poseidon. But he raged unceasingly against godlike Odysseus until he reached his homeland.

Grammar

11. Nouns: i-stems.

Nouns with stems in -i have endings differing from those of the -o- and -a- declensions, except in the accusative singular and genitive plural. Their endings also vary in the epic texts, but the basic inflection is given here with the noun polis 'city'.

12. Adjectives of the -o- and -a- Declensions.

Many of the most common adjectives fall in these declensions, e.g. kakos 'bad', neos 'new', philos 'dear'. Their endings are those of the nouns in the declensions. It must be noted, however, that feminine singular forms have -ê rather than -a unless their stems ending in -e, -i, -r, as in dikaia 'just'. Some, especially compound adjectives, have only two endings, e.g. barbaros, -on 'foreign', paranomos, -on 'unlawful.

13. The Intensive Pronoun autos and allos 'other'.

The intensive pronoun, meaning 'self, same', is inflected like adjectives except that the neuter nominative/accusative singular lacks final -n, e.g. autos, autê, auto. The forms of allos are also inflected in the same way. The forms of the third person reflexive pronouns 'his, her, their' are based on these:

14. The Dual.

The dual, a plural-like form signifying "two," is relatively rare, but is found in older verse, as in Homer. It has only two endings, one for the nominative, accusative and vocative, and the other for the genitive and dative. These are illustrated with forms from the -a-declension, the -o-declension, and the consonantal declension.

The forms for the first and third person pronouns are:

15. The Aorist System.

The aorist system is comparable to the present system, except that it lacks a form corresponding to the present indicative. Its basic meaning was punctual, but its basic set of forms generally may be translated with past tense forms. The subjunctive, optative and imperative are comparable to those of the present system.