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Juozas Tumas (1869-1933), known as Vaizgantas, was a well-known activist of the Catholic wing of the Lithuanian revival; he advocated the ideas of Lithuanian unity on the basis of Catholicism. This Lithuanian prose author, historian, and critic of literature took part in the founding and publication of several newspapers of national and Catholic orientation of that epoch. Almost every new work of a Lithuanian author was the object of his attention as a critic and reviewer. Vaizgantas had very strict requirements of artistry and language. He was more lenient with younger authors, trying to discern their emerging talent; therefore he is sometimes called 'the diamond hunter.' Although Vaizgantas' native Eastern Aukshtaitish dialect differed most of all from all other Lithuanian dialects, he tried to set an example for other people and to speak and write in the standard Lithuanian language, which was beginning to take root. However, in his literary works he did not avoid borrowings if they seemed to him to be more expressive than the Lithuanian words. In addition he used many dialect words and loved to create neologisms.

Vaizgantas' most popular work is his psychological tale Uncles and Aunts (i.e., wives of uncles). In it the author describes the way of life of the Lithuanian village. He reveals the rich and poetic internal world of the simple village man. 'Uncles' is a term denoting not only relatives, but also a person of a certain social class of the end of the XIXth and beginning of the XXth century in Lithuania. Brothers and sisters, recognizing the seniority of the oldest son to run the farm, remained unmarried and worked without recompense on the brother's farm. Their position was intermediate between that of a family member and a hired hand. Such are the basic protagonists of the story, viz. Mykolas and Severija, because of their gracious demeanor and poetic soul called by the diminutives Mykoliukas and Severiute. In the story their drama of love is described with great artistic force. Love for Severiute is the only real ray of light in the life of Mykoliukas, but being passive by nature and lacking will and ambition, he loses his beloved girl and makes peace with his fate. Distinguished by a firmer character and more energetic strength, his neighbor Rapolas Geise is successful in attracting Severija to his side and he marries her. At Severija's wedding Mykoliukas for the last time plays the little violin he has made until its strings break. In this story scenes of nature, which accompany all the experiences of the protagonists, are extremely important.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The selection given below from Uncles and Aunts tells of the meeting between Mykoliukas and Severiute in a blooming meadow near a marsh. Catching sight of the approaching Severiute, Mykoliukas stops pouring out the longing of his love with his home-made violin. They don't need any words to express their feelings. They both come together with the nature that surrounds them and speaks for them. The eloquent silence of their love is interrupted by the sudden, unexpected appearance of Geise.

In the excerpt we encounter the dual number of several pronouns jíemdviem, júodu, abùdu sė^́dinčiu and one participle abùdu sė^́dinčiu. Here we also encounter some relatively rarely used future gerunds, which form complicated constructions characteristic of the older language and which in modern Lithuanian are replaced by subordinate clauses: pajùto šiañdie kitaĩp bū^́siant; nelaúukiamą įlį̃siant. In one subordinate clause the indirect mood is used: kad mylį vienas antrą. The excerpt is full of adverbs, e.g., artì, stačiaĩ, kažìn_kaip, daugiaũ, etc., reflexive verbs, e.g. ė^̃mės, nusìjuokė, kẽčias, nusiraškyti, etc. Of the more rare words worthy of mention are šabasìnis (festive, unhurried'; this is a suffixed derivative from the word šãbas).

Nuõ pàt kálno, lìgi tìk ją̃ išvýdo, Mykoliùkas ją̃ imtè ė^̃mės į̃ savè, ar̃tino sáu Sevèriją, rýdamas er̃dvę, ir̃ kaĩ priė^̃jo visái artì, nebenuléido sàvo akių̃, tìk didelė^̃m didelė^̃m, pilnõm bekrãščio džiaũgsmo ir̃ pasigėrė^́jimo, žiūrė^́jo stačiaĩ jái į̃ akelès.

• nuõ -- preposition; <nuõ> from -- from
• pàt -- particle; <pàt> very -- very
• kálno -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <kálnas> hill -- hill
• lìgi tìk -- conjunction; <lìgi tik> as soon as -- as soon as
• ją̃ -- pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- her
• išvýdo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <išvýsti, išvýsta, išvýdo> see, witness -- he caught sight of
• Mykoliùkas -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Mykoliùkas> Mykoliukas -- Mykoliukas
• ją̃ -- pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- her
• imtè -- second infinitive; <imtè> taking -- ...
• ė^̃mės -- verb; 3rd person preterit reflexive of <im̃tis, ìmasi, ė^̃mėsi> take -- took (her)
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- into
• savè -- pronoun; accusative of <savę̃s> oneself, itself -- himself
• ar̃tino -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <ar̃tinti, ar̃tina, ar̃tino> bring near -- (he) brought near
• sáu -- pronoun; dative of <savę̃s> oneself, itself -- to himself
• Sevèriją -- proper noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Sevèrija> Severija -- Severija
• rýdamas -- verb; singular masculine of half participle of <rýti, rỹja, rìjo> devour -- devouring
• er̃dvę -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <erdvė^̃> space -- the space
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• kaĩ -- conjunction; <kaĩ> when -- when
• priė^̃jo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <prieĩti, prieĩna, priė^̃jo> come, get -- (she) got
• visái -- adverb; <visái> completely, totally -- very
• artì -- adverb; <artì> near -- near
• nebenuléido -- negative particle; <nebe> not any more + verb; 3rd person preterit of <nuléisti, nuléidžia, nuléido> lower -- he did not lower
• sàvo -- pronoun; genitive of <sàvo> he, she -- his
• akių̃ -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <akìs> eye -- eyes
• tìk -- particle; <tìk> only -- but
• didelė^̃m -- adjective; instrumental plural feminine of <dìdelis, dìdelė> great, large -- with large (eyes)
• didelė^̃m -- adjective; instrumental plural feminine of <dìdelis, dìdelė> great, large -- ...
• pilnõm -- adjective; instrumental plural feminine of <pìlnas, pilnà> full -- full
• bekrãščio -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <bekrãštis, bekrãštė> boundless -- limitless
• džiaũgsmo -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <džiaũgsmas> joy -- of joy
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• pasigėrė^́jimo -- noun, masculine; genitive singular reflexive of <pasigėrė^́jimas> enjoyment, pleasure -- of pleasure
• žiūrė^́jo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <žiūrė^́ti, žiū^̃ri, žiūrė^́jo> look -- looked
• stačiaĩ -- adverb; <stačiaĩ> straight -- straight
• jái -- pronoun; dative singular feminine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- her
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- in
• akelès -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <akẽlės> eye -- the eyes

Nusìjuokė Mykoliùkas, sustódamas gríežęs; nè balsù, tìk kažin kaĩp sàvo vìduriu.

• nusìjuokė -- verb; 3rd person preterit reflexive of <nusijuõkti, nusijuõkia, nusìjuokė> laugh -- laughed
• Mykoliùkas -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Mykoliùkas> Mykoliukas -- Mykoliukas
• sustódamas -- verb; singular masculine of half participle of <sustóti, sustója, sustójo> stop -- stopping
• gríežęs -- verb; nominative singular masculine of preterit participle active of <gríežti, gríežia, gríežė> play -- playing
• nè -- particle; <nè> no, not -- not
• balsù -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <bal^̃sas> voice -- with voice
• tìk -- particle; <tìk> only -- but
• kažin kaĩp -- adverb; <kažin kaĩp> somehow -- somehow
• sàvo -- pronoun; genitive of <sàvo> he, she -- his
• vìduriu -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <vidurỹs> inside -- with insides

Ir̃ daugiaũ nebègriežė.

• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• daugiaũ -- adverb; comparative of <daũg> many, much -- more
• nebègriežė -- negative particle; <nebe> not any more + verb; 3rd person preterit of <gríežti, gríežia, gríežė> play -- (he) did not play

Kám begriẽš, kàd dabar̃ jõ krūtìnėje, visamè jamè bùvo tokià mùzika, kuriõs jìs nègi išreĩkš menkù sàvo griežtuvėliù...

• kám -- adverb; <kám> why -- why
• begriẽš -- verb; 3rd person future of <begríežti, begríežia, begríežė> play -- will he play
• kàd -- conjunction; <kàd> that -- when
• dabar̃ -- adverb; <dabar̃> now -- now
• jõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- his
• krūtìnėje -- noun, feminine; locative singular of <krūtìnė> breast -- in the breast
• visamè -- pronoun; locative singular masculine of <vìsas, visà> all -- all (of)
• jamè -- pronoun; locative singular masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- in him
• bùvo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- there was
• tokià -- pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <tóks, tokià> such -- such
• mùzika -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <mùzika> music -- music
• kuriõs -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <kurìs, kurì> which, who -- which
• jìs -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- he
• nègi -- particle; <nègi> never -- never
• išreĩkš -- verb; 3rd person future of <išréikšti, išréiškia, išréiškė> express -- could express
• menkù -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine of <meñkas, menkà> poor -- poor
• sàvo -- pronoun; genitive of <sàvo> he, she -- his
• griežtuvėliù -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <griežtuvė^̃lis> instrument -- with the instrument

Sėdė^́jo abùdu ir̃ niẽko daugiaũ nebekalbė^́jo.

• sėdė^́jo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <sėdė^́ti, sė^́di, sėdė^́jo> sit -- sat
• abùdu -- pronoun; nominative dual masculine of <abùdu, abìdvi> both -- both
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• niẽko -- pronoun; genitive singular of <niẽkas> no one, nobody, nothing -- nothing
• daugiaũ -- adverb; comparative of <daũg> many, much -- more
• nebekalbė^́jo -- negative particle; <nebe> not any more + verb; 3rd person preterit of <kalbė^́ti, kal^̃ba, kalbė^́jo> speak -- did not speak

Jíem bùvo gẽra.

• jíem -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- for them
• bùvo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- (it) was
• gẽra -- adjective; neuter of <gẽras, gerà> good, well -- nice

Taĩp gẽra, kaĩp pìlnu žíedu pražýdusiems žolýnams.

• taĩp -- adverb; <taĩp> so, therefore -- just as
• gẽra -- adjective; neuter of <gẽras, gerà> good, well -- (it was) nice
• kaĩp -- conjunction; <kaĩp> as, like -- as
• pìlnu -- adjective; instrumental singular masculine of <pìlnas, pilnà> full -- full
• žíedu -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <žíedas> blossom, flower -- in bloom
• pražýdusiems -- verb; dative plural masculine of preterit participle active of <pražýsti, pražýsta, pražýdo> blossom -- blossoming
• žolýnams -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <žolýnas> greenery -- for greenery

Jiẽ tar̃psta, kvẽpia, lapẽliai kẽčias į̃ šalìs, ìš sunkùmo lė^̃psta.

• jiẽ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- they
• tar̃psta -- verb; 3rd person present of <tar̃pti, tar̃psta, tar̃po> grow luxuriantly -- grow luxuriantly
• kvẽpia -- verb; 3rd person present of <kvepė^́ti, kvẽpia, kvepė^́jo> smell good -- smell good
• lapẽliai -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <lapẽlis> leaf -- the leaves
• kẽčias -- verb; 3rd person present reflexive of <kė^̃stis, kẽčiasi, kė^̃tėsi> spread out -- spread out
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- to
• šalìs -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <šalìs> side -- the sides
• ìš -- preposition; <ìš> from -- from
• sunkùmo -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <sunkùmas> heaviness, weight -- heaviness
• lė^̃psta -- verb; 3rd person present of <lėpti, lėpsta, lėpo> droop -- droop

Jiẽ grãžina píevą, tráukia į̃ savè bet kuriõ gývio akìs.

• jiẽ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- they
• grãžina -- verb; 3rd person present of <grãžinti, grãžina, grãžino> adorn -- adorn
• píevą -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <píeva> meadow -- meadow
• tráukia -- verb; 3rd person present of <tráukti, tráukia, tráukė> attract -- attract
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- to
• savè -- pronoun; accusative of <savę̃s> oneself, itself -- themselves
• bet kuriõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <bet kurìs> any -- any
• gývio -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <gývis> living being -- of living being
• akìs -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <akìs> eye -- the eyes

Ir̃ nė víenas vabzdỹs neapleñkia jų̃ nepabučiãvęs, añt jų̃ nepasilsė^́jęs.

• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• nė víenas -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <nė víenas, nė vienà> not one -- not a single
• vabzdỹs -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <vabzdỹs> insect -- insect
• neapleñkia -- negative particle; <ne> not + verb; 3rd person present of <apleñkti, apleñkia, àplenkė> pass by -- passes by
• jų̃ -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- them
• nepabučiãvęs -- negative particle; <ne> not + verb; nominative singular masculine of preterit participle active of <pabučiúoti, pabučiúoja, pabučiãvo> kiss -- not kissing
• añt -- preposition; <añt> in, on -- on
• jų̃ -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- them
• nepasilsė^́jęs -- negative particle; <ne> not + verb; nominative singular masculine of preterit participle active of <pasilsė^́ti, pasìlsi, pasilsė^́jo> rest -- not resting

Tìk víenas nedõrėlis žmogùs tuõj síekia jõ - nusiraškýti ir̃, pavar̃čius pavar̃čius, numèsti, kàd bè laĩko nuvýstų, jaũ ùžmirštas.

• tìk -- particle; <tìk> only -- only
• víenas -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <víenas, vienà> alone, each -- one
• nedõrėlis -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <nedõrėlis> dishonorable -- dishonorable
• žmogùs -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <žmogùs> human being, person -- human being
• tuõj -- adverb; <tuõj> immediately -- immediately
• síekia -- verb; 3rd person present of <síekti, síekia, síekė> try to get, reach -- reaches
• jõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- for it
• nusiraškýti -- verb; infinitive reflexive of <nusiraškýti, nusirãško, nusirãškė> tear off -- to tear (it) off
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• pavar̃čius -- verb; preterit gerund(ive) of <pavartýti, pavar̃to, pavar̃tė> turn over -- having turned (it) over
• pavar̃čius -- verb; preterit gerund(ive) of <pavartýti, pavar̃to, pavar̃tė> turn over -- having turned (it) over
• numèsti -- verb; infinitive of <numèsti, nùmeta, nùmetė> throw away -- to throw (it) away
• kàd -- conjunction; <kàd> that -- so that
• bè -- preposition; <bè> before, without -- before
• laĩko -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <laĩkas> time -- (its) time
• nuvýstų -- verb; 3rd person subjunctive of <nuvýsti, nuvýsta, nuvýto> fade -- (it) would fade
• jaũ -- particle; <jaũ> already, just -- already
• ùžmirštas -- verb; nominative singular masculine of preterit participle passive of <užmir̃šti, užmir̃šta, užmir̃šo> forget -- forgotten

Ką̃ jiẽ galė^́jo víenas antrám pasisakýti?

• ką̃ -- pronoun; accusative of <kàs> which, what -- what
• jiẽ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- they
• galė^́jo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <galė^́ti, gãli, galė^́jo> can -- could
• víenas -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <víenas, vienà> alone, each -- ...
• antrám -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <añtras, antrà> other -- to each other
• pasisakýti -- verb; infinitive reflexive of <pasisakýti, pasisãko, pasisãkė> say, tell -- to say

Kàd mýlį víenas añtrą, kàd jíemdviem gẽra draugėjè?

• kàd -- conjunction; <kàd> that -- that
• mýlį -- verb; 3rd person present of <mylė^́ti, mýli, mylė^́jo> love -- (they) love
• víenas -- pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <víenas, vienà> alone, each -- ...
• añtrą -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <añtras, antrà> other -- each other
• kàd -- conjunction; <kàd> that -- that
• jíemdviem -- pronoun; dative dual masculine of <juõdu, jiẽdvi> they both -- they both
• gẽra -- adjective; neuter of <gẽras, gerà> good, well -- (feel) good
• draugėjè -- noun, feminine; locative singular of <draugė^̃> company -- together

Jùk taĩ ir̃ bè žõdžių áišku.

• jùk -- particle; <jùk> but -- but
• taĩ -- pronoun; neuter of <tàs, tà> this, that -- that
• ir̃ -- particle; <ir̃> and -- even
• bè -- preposition; <bè> before, without -- without
• žõdžių -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <žõdis> word -- words
• áišku -- adjective; neuter of <áiškus, áiški> clear -- (is) clear

Dár pilniaũ.

• dár -- adverb; <dár> even, still -- even
• pilniaũ -- adverb; comparative of <pilnaĩ> exhaustively -- more exhaustively

Žõdžiai arbà nè vìską tepasãko, arbà per daũg pasãko ir̃ atvėsìna vìdų.

• žõdžiai -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <žõdis> word -- words
• arbà -- conjunction; <arbà> either, or -- either...
• nè -- particle; <nè> no, not -- do not
• vìską -- pronoun; accusative of <vìskas> everything -- everything
• tepasãko -- verb; 3rd person present of <tepasakýti, tepasãko, tepasãkė> say, tell -- say
• arbà -- conjunction; <arbà> either, or -- or
• per daũg -- adverb; <per daũg> too much -- too much
• pasãko -- verb; 3rd person present of <pasakýti, pasãko, pasãkė> say, tell -- (they) say
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• atvėsìna -- verb; 3rd person present of <atvėsìnti, atvėsìna, atvėsìno> cool off -- cool off
• vìdų -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <vidùs> inside -- the insides

Žõdžiai - gãras: išsišnỹpščia ir̃ nebèkečia vidaũs.

• žõdžiai -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <žõdis> word -- words
• gãras -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <gãras> steam -- (are) steam
• išsišnỹpščia -- verb; 3rd person present reflexive of <išsišnỹpšti, išsišnỹpščia, išsìšnỹpštė> hiss -- (they) are hissed out
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• nebèkečia -- negative particle; <nebe> not any more + verb; 3rd person present of <kė^̃sti, kẽčia, kė^̃tė> reach -- don't reach
• vidaũs -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <vidùs> inside -- the insides

Abùdu sė^́dinčiu staigà pamãtė ìš raĩsto išsinė^́rusį jų̃ šveñtvakarių beñdrą, dė^̃l kuriõ jíemdviem šiaĩpjau bùvo neĩ šil^̃ta, neĩ šálta.

• abùdu -- pronoun; nominative dual masculine of <abùdu, abìdvi> both -- they both
• sė^́dinčiu -- verb; nominative dual masculine of present participle active of <sėdė^́ti, sė^́di, sėdė^́jo> sit -- while were sitting
• staigà -- adverb; <staigà> suddenly -- suddenly
• pamãtė -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <pamatýti, pamãto, pamãtė> see -- saw
• ìš -- preposition; <ìš> from -- from
• raĩsto -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <raĩstas> marsh -- the marsh
• išsinė^́rusį -- verb; accusative singular masculine of preterit participle active of <išsinérti, išsìneria, išsinė^́rė> come out, arise -- arising
• jų̃ -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- their
• šveñtvakarių -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <šveñtvakaris> holiday evening -- of the holiday evenings
• beñdrą -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <beñdras> friend, participant -- a participant
• dė^̃l -- preposition; <dė^̃l> because, for -- because of
• kuriõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <kurìs, kurì> which, who -- whom
• jíemdviem -- pronoun; dative dual masculine of <jiẽdu, jiẽdvi> they both -- they both
• šiaĩpjau -- adverb; <šiaĩpjau> in general, on the whole -- on the whole
• bùvo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- were
• neĩ -- conjunction; <neĩ> neither, nor -- neither
• šil^̃ta -- adjective; neuter of <šil^̃tas, šiltà> warm -- warm
• neĩ -- conjunction; <neĩ> neither, nor -- nor
• šálta -- adjective; neuter of <šáltas, šaltà> cold -- cold

Pasérgėjo ir̃ pagreĩtintą jõ žiñgsnį, nè tókį šabasìnį kaĩp kitomìs póilsio dienomìs.

• pasérgėjo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <pasérgėti, pasérgi, pasérgėjo> watch, notice -- (they) watched
• ir̃ -- particle; <ir̃> and -- also
• pagreĩtintą -- verb; accusative singular masculine of preterit participle passive of <pagreĩtinti, pagreĩtina, pagreĩtino> accelerate -- accelerated
• jõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- his
• žiñgsnį -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <žiñgsnis> step, pace -- pace
• nè -- particle; <nè> no, not -- (which was) not
• tókį -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <tóks, tokià> such -- so
• šabasìnį -- adjective; accusative singular masculine <šabasìnis, šabasìnė> festive -- festive
• kaĩp -- conjunction; <kaĩp> as, like -- as
• kitomìs -- pronoun; instrumental plural feminine of <kìtas, kità> other -- on other
• póilsio -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <póilsis> rest -- of rest
• dienomìs -- noun, feminine; instrumental plural of <dienà> day -- days

Pasérgėję žingsniúojant tiẽsiai į̃ juõdu, pajùto šiañdie kitaĩp bū^́siant, neláukiamą įlį̃siant į̃ tą̃ órą, kurį̃ tìk ką bùvo susidãrę pãtys sáu, sáu vieníem, kuriõ pavydù bùvo, kàd kitì kvėpúotų; įlį̃s ir̃ sudrum̃s užkerė^́tą jų̃ méilės srìtį.

• pasérgėję -- verb; nominative plural masculine of preterit participle active of <pasérgėti, pasérgi, pasérgėjo> watch, notice -- watching
• žingsniúojant -- verb; present gerund(ive) of <žingsniúoti, žingsniúoja, žingsniãvo> walk, pace -- (him) walking
• tiẽsiai -- adverb; <tiẽsiai> directly -- directly
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- to
• juõdu -- pronoun; nominative dual masculine of <juõdu, jiẽdvi> they both -- them both
• pajùto -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <pajùsti, pajuñta, pajùto> feel -- (they) felt
• šiañdie -- adverb; <šiañdie> today -- today
• kitaĩp -- adverb; <kitaĩp> differently -- differently
• bū^́siant -- verb; future gerund(ive) of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- would be
• neláukiamą -- negative particle; <ne> not + verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle passive of <láukti, láukia, láukė> expect, wait -- (him) unexpected
• įlį̃siant -- verb; future gerund(ive) of <įlį̃sti, į̃lenda, įliñdo> get in -- would get in
• į̃ -- preposition; <į̃> at, for, in, to -- in
• tą̃ -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <tàs, tà> this, that -- that
• órą -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <óras> atmosphere -- atmosphere
• kurį̃ -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <kurìs, kurì> which, who -- which
• tìk ką -- adverb; <tìk ką> just, just now -- just
• bùvo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- had
• susidãrę -- verb; nominative plural masculine of preterit participle active reflexive of <susidarýti, susidãro, susidãrė> create -- created
• pãtys -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <pàts, patì> themselves -- (they) themselves
• sáu -- pronoun; dative of <savę̃s> oneself, itself -- for themselves
• sáu -- pronoun; dative of <savę̃s> oneself, itself -- for themselves
• vieníem -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <víenas, vienà> alone, each -- alone
• kuriõ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <kurìs, kurì> which, who -- of which
• pavydù -- adjective; neuter of <pavydùs, pavydì> jealous -- jealous
• bùvo -- verb; 3rd person preterit of <bū^́ti, yrà, bùvo> be -- (they) were
• kàd -- conjunction; <kàd> that -- that
• kitì -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <kìtas, kità> other -- other
• kvėpúotų -- verb; 3rd person subjunctive of <kvėpúoti, kvėpúoja, kvėpãvo> breathe -- would breathe (it)
• įlį̃s -- verb; 3rd person future of <įlį̃sti, į̃lenda, įliñdo> get in -- (he) will get in
• ir̃ -- conjunction; <ir̃> and -- and
• sudrum̃s -- verb; 3rd person future of <sudrum̃sti, sudrum̃sčia, sùdrumstė> disturb -- will disturb
• užkerė^́tą -- verb; accusative singular feminine of preterit participle passive of <užkerė^́ti, ùžkeri, užkerė^́jo> charmed -- charmed
• jų̃ -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <jìs, jì> he, she, it -- their
• méilės -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <méilė> love -- of love
• srìtį -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <sritìs> field, area -- the area

Lesson Text

Nuõ pàt kálno, lìgi tìk ją̃ išvýdo, Mykoliùkas ją̃ imtè ė^̃mės į̃ savè, ar̃tino sáu Sevèriją, rýdamas er̃dvę, ir̃ kaĩ priė^̃jo visái artì, nebenuléido sàvo akių̃, tìk didelė^̃m didelė^̃m, pilnõm bekrãščio džiaũgsmo ir̃ pasigėrė^́jimo, žiūrė^́jo stačiaĩ jái į̃ akelès.

Nusìjuokė Mykoliùkas, sustódamas gríežęs; nè balsù, tìk kažin kaĩp sàvo vìduriu. Ir̃ daugiaũ nebègriežė. Kám begriẽš, kàd dabar̃ jõ krūtìnėje, visamè jamè bùvo tokià mùzika, kuriõs jìs nègi išreĩkš menkù sàvo griežtuvėliù...

Sėdė^́jo abùdu ir̃ niẽko daugiaũ nebekalbė^́jo. Jíem bùvo gẽra. Taĩp gẽra, kaĩp pìlnu žíedu pražýdusiems žolýnams. Jiẽ tar̃psta, kvẽpia, lapẽliai kẽčias į̃ šalìs, ìš sunkùmo lė^̃psta. Jiẽ grãžina píevą, tráukia į̃ savè bet kuriõ gývio akìs. Ir̃ nė víenas vabzdỹs neapleñkia jų̃ nepabučiãvęs, añt jų̃ nepasilsė^́jęs. Tìk víenas nedõrėlis žmogùs tuõj síekia jõ - nusiraškýti ir̃, pavar̃čius pavar̃čius, numèsti, kàd bè laĩko nuvýstų, jaũ ùžmirštas.

Ką̃ jiẽ galė^́jo víenas antrám pasisakýti? Kàd mýlį víenas añtrą, kàd jíemdviem gẽra draugėjè? Jùk taĩ ir̃ bè žõdžių áišku. Dár pilniaũ. Žõdžiai arbà nè vìską tepasãko, arbà per daũg pasãko ir̃ atvėsìna vìdų. Žõdžiai - gãras: išsišnỹpščia ir̃ nebèkečia vidaũs.

Abùdu sė^́dinčiu staigà pamãtė ìš raĩsto išsinė^́rusį jų̃ šveñtvakarių beñdrą, dė^̃l kuriõ jíemdviem šiaĩpjau bùvo neĩ šil^̃ta, neĩ šálta. Pasérgėjo ir̃ pagreĩtintą jõ žiñgsnį, nè tókį šabasìnį kaĩp kitomìs póilsio dienomìs. Pasérgėję žingsniúojant tiẽsiai į̃ juõdu, pajùto šiañdie kitaĩp bū^́siant, neláukiamą įlį̃siant į̃ tą̃ órą, kurį̃ tìk ką bùvo susidãrę pãtys sáu, sáu vieníem, kuriõ pavydù bùvo, kàd kitì kvėpúotų; įlį̃s ir̃ sudrum̃s užkerė^́tą jų̃ méilės srìtį.

Translation

From that very hill, as soon as he caught sight of her, he took her into himself, he brought Severija near to himself, eagerly devouring the space and when she got very near, he no longer lowered his gaze, but with great eyes full of limitless joy and pleasure looked her straight in the eyes.

Stopping his playing Mykoliukas laughed, not with his voice, but somehow or other with his insides. And played no more. Why would he play, when now in his breast, in all of him, there was such music, which he could never express with his insignificant little instrument.

They both sat and said nothing more. It was nice for both of them. It was just as nice as for blossoming greenery in full bloom. They grow luxuriantly, they smell good, the leaves spread out to the sides, grow limp from heaviness. They adorn the meadow and attract to themselves the eyes of any living thing. And not a single insect passes them by without kissing (them) and without resting on them. Only the human being (dishonorable as he is known to be) reaches for it immediately - to tear it off for himself and having turned it over, to throw it away so that it would fade before its time, already forgotten.

What could they say to each other? That they love each other, that they like being together? But that is clear without words. Or even more. Words either don't say everything or they say too much and make the insides cold. Words are steam. They make a noise, but they don't reach the insides.

While both of them were sitting there, they saw arising from the marsh a participant in the holiday evenings someone about whom both were indifferent. They watched his accelerated pace, which was not so festive and unhurried as on other days of rest. Watching him walking directly to them, they felt that today would be different, unexpectedly forcing its way into that atmosphere which they had just created for themselves only, the two of them alone, of which they were jealous, that other people might breathe it. It will force its way in and disturb the charmed dimension of their love.

Grammar

21. Numerals

21.1. The Ordinal Numerals

Ordinal numerals are mostly derived from the corresponding cardinal numerals by adding the suffix -tas,-ta. The formation of pìrmas 'first', añtras 'second' and trẽčias 'third' differs from that of other ordinal numerals. These numerals denote place in a series. They are declined like regular adjectives (cf: pìktas, piktà 'angry') and agree with the word they modify in case, number and gender. The following ordinal numerals are used most frequently:

Ordinal numerals possess definite forms which are similar to the adjectives of the first declension (cf: naũjas 'new', naujà), e.g., pirmàsis 'the first', pirmóji; antràsis 'the second', antróji; trečiàsis 'the third', trečióji, etc.:

• Paũlius bùvo trečiàsis vaĩkas màno brólio šeimojè
• 'Paulius was the third child in my brother's family'.
• Rytój Violetà šveñčia sàvo šešióliktąjį gimtãdienį
• 'Tomorrow Violeta is celebrating her sixteenth birthday'.

Definite ordinal numerals are used to designate dates, e.g.:

• Taĩ įvỹko tū^́kstantis penkì šimtaĩ kẽturiasdešimt septintaĩsiais
• 'That happened in one thousand five hundred and forty-seven'.

In a compound ordinal number only the final element has the form of an ordinal numeral and is declined. The other elements remain in the nominative case, e.g.:

They also have a neuter form, e.g., pìrmas 'first': pìrma; añtras 'second': añtra; peñktas 'fifth': peñkta, etc.:

Pìrma, bū^́tina atsikélti aštuñtą vãlandą rýto; añtra, paskam̃binti į̃ aeroúostą; trẽčia, susikráuti lagamìną... 'First, it is necessary to get up at eight in the morning; second, to call the airport; third, to pack the suitcase...'

21.2. Fractions

In mathematics such forms as vienà antróji 'one-half', dvì trẽčiosios 'two-thirds', trỹs peñktosios 'three fifths' are used. The numerator is a feminine cardinal number and the denominator is a feminine ordinal number in the definite form. The denominator always agrees with dalìs 'part' in gender, although the word dalìs does not appear in any fraction. When the numerator is a numeral from 1 to 9 the denominator agrees with the numerator in gender, number and case, e.g., Padalìnk ìš dviejų̃ trečių̃jų 'Divide by two-thirds'. When the numerator is any other numeral (except from 1 to 9), the denominator is always in the genitive plural, e.g., Vienúolikos dvidešimtų̃jų neįmãnoma suprãstinti 'It is impossible to simplify eleven-twentieths'.

Parts of things are most often indicated by compound numerals. Their first component is the root of an ordinal numeral, and the second component is the noun dalìs 'part'. They are listed below:

trẽčdalis 'one third': trẽčdalis pasáulio 'one-third of the world'; ketvirtãdalis 'one fourth': ketvirtãdalis valandõs 'one-fourth of an hour'; penktãdalis 'one fifth': penktãdalis studeñtų 'one-fifth of the students'; šeštãdalis 'one sixth': šeštãdalis augalų̃ 'one-sixth of the plants'; septintãdalis 'one seventh': septintãdalis ligónių 'one-seventh of the patients'; aštuntãdalis 'one eighth': aštuntãdalis gãtvių 'one-eighth of the streets'; devintãdalis 'one ninth': devintãdalis Euròpos 'one-ninth of Europe'; dešimtãdalis 'one tenth': dešimtãdalis paskolõs 'one-tenth of a loan'.

All these numerals are declined like the nouns of the first declension (cf: brólis). Fractions vienà antróji 'one-half' and vienà ketvirtóji are often replaced by the feminine noun pùsė 'half' and the masculine noun ketvir̃tis 'quarter' respectively, e.g.:

• Láukiau tavę̃s pùsę valandõs 'I was waiting for you a half an hour'.
• Mẽs prarãdome ketvir̃tį milijõno 'We have lost a quarter of a million'.

There is a group of numerals the first component of which is the root of the noun pùsė 'half' and the second component of which is an ordinal numeral in the genitive, e.g.:

• Žadù nusipir̃kti pustrečiõs tònos kviečių̃ 'I intend to buy two and a half tons of wheat'.
• Kur̃ tù buvaĩ pusantrõs saváitės? 'Where were you for a week and a half?'

22. Reflexive Verbs and Verbal Prefixes

22.1. The Reflexive Verbs

The reflexive verbs in Lithuanian can be divided into two groups: simple reflexive verbs where the reflexive particle -si or -s is added at the end and compound reflexive verbs where the reflexive particle -si is inserted between the prefix and the verb proper. To this group also belong all reflexive verbs in their negative forms. The negative particle ne is treated in such cases as a prefix, e.g., jis kartójasi 'he repeats himself', jìs nesikartója 'he does not repeat himself'. In the latter group, the conjugation of the basic verb does not change at all, only the -si- is inserted.

It is a little more difficult to learn the simple reflexive verbs. Certain changes occur both in the endings of these verbs and the reflexive particle -si:

In present and future the first person singular endings -u and -iu are replaced by -uo- and -iuo- respectively and the second person singular ending -i is replaced by -ie-. In the first and second plural, instead of -si, only -s is added, and the short final -e of these forms is replaced by -ė. The third person future has the shortened variant of the reflexive particle. Also there is an -i- inserted after the consonant s. In the imperative the longer suffix -ki is retained.

The stress pattern is the same as in the non-reflexive verbs.

The reflexive particle may change the verbal meaning in a variety of ways, cf:

• Vakarè išmáudžiau vaikùs, po to išsimaudžiau pats 'In the evening I bathed the children, later I took a bath myself'.
• Vìskas pasìkeitė jíems čia apsigyvẽnus. Butè jiẽ pàkeitė visùs senùs baldùs 'Everything changed when they moved here. They changed all the old furniture in the apartment'.
• Jám visadà sunkù valdýti sàvo emòcijas, tačiau vãkar jìs vis dėlto pàjėgė susivalýti 'It is always difficult for him to control his emotions, but yesterday he was nevertheless able to control himself'.
• Čià jìs šaũkia gýdytoją, čià šaũkiasi Diẽvo malónės Sometimes he calls for a doctor, sometimes he cries for the grace of God'.

A number of reflexive verbs are unrelated to any underlying verb (reflexiva tantum), e.g., el^̃gtis 'to behave', juõktis 'to laugh', didžiúotis 'to be proud of', pasiìlgti 'to miss', drovė^́tis 'to be shy', teiráutis 'to inquire', etc.

22.2. Verbal Prefixes

The system of word formation with verbal prefixes is highly developed in Lithuanian. Prefixes may change or modify the meaning of the verb. The addition of a prefix usually renders the verb perfective.

The most common prefixes in Lithuanian are the following: ap- (api-), at-, (ati-), į-, iš-, nu-, pa-, par-, per-, pra-, pri-, su-, už-. Several examples of common prefixes with a few of the ordinary meanings are given below.

at- (ati-) may denote:

• arrival, coming to a certain place, e.g., atvažiúoti 'to come', atnèšti 'to bring';
• separation or division or removal, e.g., atkir̃sti 'to cut off', atskìrti 'to separate', 'to detach';
• return to an original position, e.g., atáugti 'to grow back', 'to grow again', atgìmti 'to be reborn', 'to be revived';
• the completion of an action, e.g., atpìgti 'to become cheap', to fall in price', atbùkti 'to become blunt'.

į- may denote:

• motion into a place or an object, e.g., įskrìsti 'fly in'; įnèšti 'bring in, carry in';
• the beginning of an action which is carried out only to a slight degree, e.g., įkir̃pti 'to cut a little bit', 'to cut into something', įtrū^́kti 'get slightly broken';
• completion of an action, e.g., įtìkinti 'to persuade', įvýkdyti 'to carry out, to complete';
• it also may be used with verbs formed from nouns or adjectives, e.g., įámžinti 'to immortalize' (cf: ámžinas 'eternal'), įpareigóti 'to oblige', 'to bind' (cf: pareigà 'duty', 'obligation').

iš- may denote:

• motion out of something, e.g., išskrìsti 'to fly out', išnèšti 'to carry out', 'to take out';
• the action covering the entire area or whole series of objects, e.g., išbarstýti 'spill', 'to scatter', išžudýti 'to exterminate';
• an action lasting for a certain length of time, e.g., išláukti 'to wait for a certain length of time', išbū^́ti 'to stay', 'to remain for a certain length of time';
• completion or fulfilment of an action, e.g., išlõšti 'to win', išskal^̃bti 'to wash', 'to launder'.

nu- may denote:

• motion away from something or some place, e.g., nuvažiúoti 'to go to (away)', 'to depart to', nubė^́gti 'to run away';
• motion downwards, e.g., nukrìsti 'fall down', 'fall off', nušókti 'to jump down';
• severance from the main part of an object, e.g., nulíeti 'to pour off', nupjáuti 'to cut off';
• completion of an action to the very end, e.g., nuskandìnti 'to drown', 'to sink'.

pa- may denote:

• the complection of an action, e.g., pasakýti 'to say', 'to tell', pastatýti 'to build', 'to construct';
• a short duration of an action, e.g., paskal^̃bti 'to wash for a little while', panèšti 'to carry for a little bit';
• that something is put under something else, e.g., padė^́ti 'to put under', 'to lay under', palį̃sti 'to creep under';
• the ability or capacity to perform a certain action, e.g., pastùmti 'to be able to push' panèšti 'to be able to carry'.

per- may denote:

• motion across or through something, e.g., pérnešti 'to carry across', pérlįsti 'creep through', 'to get through';
• separation or division, e.g., pérpjauti 'to cut into two', pérlaužti 'to break into two';
• the repetition or the renewal of an action, e.g., pérskaičiuoti 'to count again' pérskalbti 'to wash again';
• exceeding of the norm or going beyond a certain limit, e.g., pérmokėti 'to overpay' pérsidirbti 'to overwork'.

pra- may denote:

• movement by or past some place, e.g., praskrìsti 'to fly by', 'to fly past', pravažiúoti 'to drive past', 'to ride past';
• movement through something or some place, e.g., praláužti 'to break through', prapjáuti 'to cut through';
• disappearance, loss or lack of something, e.g., pradiñgti 'to disappear', praválgyti 'to eat away (one's money);
• the passage of a certain length of time in some activity, e.g., praláukti 'to spend a certain time waiting for', pragalvóti 'to think for a certain length of time'.

su- may denote:

• gathering together or a coming-together, e.g., sunèšti 'to bring together', suvažiúoti 'to come together';
• dissection or division into parts, e.g., suláužyti 'to break into parts', sutrùpinti 'to crumble';
• the attainment of the goal or the aim, e.g., suràsti 'to find' (what one has lost)', susèkti 'to trace down, to find out'.

už- may denote:

• the direction up, e.g., užnèšti 'to carry up', to bring up', užlìpti 'to climb up', 'to mount', 'to ascend';
• that something is put on something else, e.g., uždeñgti 'to cover', užpìlti 'to strew on', 'to fill up', 'to cover with';
• putting something behind something else or going behind something, e.g., užstatýti 'to place behind', užtámsinti 'to shade';
• the completion of an action, e.g., užmokė^́ti 'to pay', užkùrti 'to light up', 'to set fire to'.

Many verbal prefixes modify the meaning of the verb or show a distinct direction, e.g., mèsti 'to throw', 'to hurl', ' to chuck', apmesti 'to throw with', 'to cover with', atmèsti 'to throw off', 'to cast away', įmèsti 'to throw in', 'to cast in' išmèsti 'to throw out', numèsti 'to throw down', 'to fling down', 'to drop', , 'to throw off', 'to cast off', 'to throw far away', 'to cast far away', pamèsti 'to throw under', ' to throw a little', 'to toss a little', parmèsti 'to throw down', 'to bring down', pérmesti 'to throw over', 'to throw across', pramèsti 'to throw past', 'to miss in throwing' primesti 'to throw (full, a quantity of)', 'to heap up', 'to cast (full, a quantity of)', 'to heap up', 'to fill', 'to throw about', sumèsti 'to throw into', 'to throw together' 'to pile', 'to heap', užmèsti 'to throw on', 'to throw over', 'to fling on', 'to throw behind'.

But in some few cases the prefix can change the real verbal meaning or give to the verb an opposite meaning dúoti 'to give', pardúoti 'to sell', laimė^́ti 'to win', pralaimė^́ti 'to lose', prìmesti 'to press on', 'to thrust on', 'to impute to', sumèsti 'to understand', count up', etc.

Some verbs may have practically the same meaning with either of two prefixes, e.g., išnỹkti, pranỹkti 'to disappear', išgýti, pagýti 'to recover', 'to get better', etc. The prefix does not give a new meaning to some verbs and therefore the verb means practically the same thing with or without the prefix, e.g., baĩgti, pabaĩgti, užbaĩgti 'to finish' grį̃žti, sugrį̃žti 'to return', etc.

The correct usage of prefixes may cause a major problem for foreign learners.

In the clause prefixes correlate with corresponding prepositions: ap- and apiẽ 'about','off'; į- and į̃ 'in', 'into', 'to'; iš- and ìš 'from', 'out of'; nu- and nuõ 'from', 'off', 'down'; pa- and põ 'in', 'about', etc.; per- and per̃ 'through', 'across', etc.; pra- and prõ 'through', 'by'; pri- and priẽ 'at', 'by', etc.; su- and sù 'with'; už- and ùž 'behind', 'beyond', e.g.:

• Jiẽ išvažiãvo ìš namų̃ ankstì rýtą 'They left their home early in the morning'.
• Vidùrdienį mẽs pérsikėlėm per̃ ùpę 'At midday we crossed the river'.
• Automobìlis nuslydo nuõ kẽlio 'The car slid off the road'.

23. The Passive and Reflexive Participles

23.1. The Passive Participles

In Lithuanian the present passive participle and the past passive participle are more common than the future passive participle which is relatively rare. The forms of the so-called 'participles of necessity' are also passive. The present and past passive participles may be used either to form the passive voice of various tenses or they may be used attributively like adjectives.

The Present Passive Participle.

The present passive participle is formed by adding the endings -mas, -ma to the third person present of the finite verbs, e.g.:

The declension of the present passive participle is given below (cf: the adjectives pìktas, piktà 'angry'):

The definite forms of the present passive participles can frequently be used as nouns, e.g.:

• Válgomasis bùvo pìlnas žmonių̃ 'The dining-room was full of people'.
• Nepažįstamóji pasisiū^́lė padė^́ti 'The stranger offered her help'.

Other definite participles (active and passive) may also be used in nominal positions, e.g.:

• Láukiantieji priẽ dùrų ìma nerimáuti 'The people waiting at the door start to worry'.
• Kalbė^́jusieji staigà nutìlo ir̃ suklùso 'The people who were speaking suddenly hushed and pricked up their ears'.
• Kviestíeji neatvỹko 'The invitees did not come'.

The Past Passive Participle.

The past passive participle is formed by removing the infinitive ending -ti and adding the -tas, -ta, e.g.:

• masc.nom.sg.: mylė^́-ti 'to love' + -tas = mylė^́tas 'loved, having been loved';
• fem.nom.sg.: mylė^́-ti 'to love' + -ta = mylė^́ta 'loved, having been loved'.

The paradigm is as follows:

The Future Passive Participle.

The future passive participle is formed by adding the endings -mas, -ma to the second person singular of the future tense, e.g.:

Except for the participle bū^́simas, būsimà, future passive participles are rarely used. Future passive participles are declined like present passive participles:

• Àš vìs atidėliójau tą̃ sàvo bū^́simą susitikìmą
• 'I kept putting off my forthcoming meeting'.

The Participle of Necessity.

The participle of necessity is formed by adding the endings -nas, -na to the verbal infinitive, e.g.:

The participle of necessity denotes an action which should be performed or is worthy of being performed, e.g.:

• Šìs atmiñtinas susitikìmas įvỹko priẽš peñkerius metùs 'This memorable meeting took place five years ago'.
• Reĩkia ieškóti išeitiẽs ìš tokiõs apverktinõs situãcijos 'It is necessary to seek a way out of such a lamentable situation'.

The most frequent forms, however, do not bear any of the meaning of necessity and function merely as verbal adjectives.

23.2. The Reflexive Participles

The participles can also be reflexive. The reflexive active participles without prefixes are formed by adding the reflexive particle to the ending of the nominative case. The reflexive particle -s is added to the end of the simple particle in the singular and -si to the plural. In the masculine singular there is an -i- inserted between the participle and the final -s of the ending.

Present active participles:

Past active participles:

These participles are used only in the masculine and feminine singular and the masculine plural, e.g.:

• Sãko, kàd jìs šiuõ metù gydą̃sis nuõ plaũčių uždegìmo 'They say, now he is being treated for pneumonia'.
• Nustók tikė^́jęsis stebùklo 'Stop waiting for a miracle'.

If the verb is prefixed, than the reflexive particle -si- is inserted after the prefix, but before the root of the verb. Then all of the cases of the participle may be used, e.g., present active participle: nom.sg.masc. besigydą̃s, besigýdantis, gen.sg.masc. besigýdančio, dat.sg.masc. besigýdančiam, etc.; past active participle: išsigýdęs, išsigýdžiusio, išsigýdžiusiam, etc.:

• Gãtvė bùvo pilnà besilìnksminančių žmonių̃ 'The street was full of celebrating people'.
• Pasidžiaũgęs gerà žinià pàkviečiau pùsbrolį išgérti kavõs 'Having rejoiced at the good news, I invited my cousin to take a cup of coffee'.

The masculine and feminine forms of reflexive passive participles are created only from prefixed verbs, e.g.: išsìperkamas, 'being redeemed', išsiperkamà, išsìpirktas, '(having been) redeemed' išsipirktà:

• Atsìnešto maĩsto jíems neužtẽko nė^̃ dvíem dienóms
• Food brought with them was not enough even for two days'.

The neuter forms of reflexive passive participles can be formed both from prefixed and non-prefixed verbs, e.g., kal^̃bamasi, pasìkalbama '(being) spoken of, about '; kalbė^́tasi, pasikalbē^́ta '(having been) spoken of, about'':

• Jų̃ kalbė^́tasi apiẽ tolèsnio bendradarbiãvimo perspektyvàs
• 'They spoke among themselves about perspectives for further collaboration'.

The reflexive half-participles and gerunds are formed in the same way as the active participles.

24. The Compound Tenses of the Active Voice

Compound tenses are formed with the finite forms of the auxiliary bū^́ti 'to be' and the present or past active or passive participle. Compound tenses containing active participles belong to the active voice, and those containing passive participles belong to the passive voice.

Compound forms with a present active participle form compound continuative tenses and moods, and those with a present passive participle form compound imperfect tenses and moods. Compound forms containing past active or passive participle are used as compound active or passive perfect tenses and moods.

24.1. Continuative Tenses

The past, the past frequentative and the future tense of the verb bū^́ti 'to be' may be used with the appropriate form of the present active participle (prefixed with be-) to express an action which is not, or could not be completed. These forms are somewhat similar in meaning to the various progressive tenses of English. There are no present tense continuative forms in modern Lithuanian. The compound past continuative is most frequently used. A sample paradigm with the past tense is given below:

The number and gender of the participle are always the same as the number and gender of the subject. The participle is always in the nominative case to agree with the subject of the verb which is also in the nominative case, e.g.:

• Buvaũ jaũ bèperkanti tą̃ kerãminę vãzą, bèt paskutìnę minùtę pastebė^́jau, kàd jì įtrū^́kusi 'I was already buying that ceramic vase but at the last minute I saw that it had slightly broken.
• Rytõj tókiu pàt laikù jìs jaũ bùs bekeliáująs namõ 'Tomorrow at the same time he will be already travelling home'.

24.2. Perfect Tenses

Compound perfect tenses are formed with the auxiliary verb bū^́ti 'to be' and the past active participle. Bū^́ti is used in one of its finite forms. Compound perfect forms occur in the present, past, past frequentative and future of the indicative mood and also in the subjunctive and imperative.

As in English the present perfect tense denotes the present state which is the result of a past action. It may not, however, denote a past action continuing into the present as does the English perfect tense, cf:

• Šiojè į^́monėje jì dìrba jaũ penkiólika mẽtų
• 'She has been working in this company for fifteen years'.

In this case the English perfect tense is translated with a Lithuanian present tense.

The present perfect tense is formed with the present conjugation of the verb bū^́ti and the form of the past active participle agrees in gender and number with the subject:

• Kẽletą kar̃tų ir̃ àš esù pažeĩdusi eĩsmo taisyklès 'I too have violated traffic regulations several times'.
• Jiẽ niekadà nėrà bùvę tokiamè gūdžiamè miškè 'They have never been in such a gloomy forest'.

The pluperfect tense is formed with the preterit of the verb bū^́ti plus the past active participle. The gender and number of the participle depend upon the gender and number of the subject. A sample paradigm is given below:

This tense denotes a state which had been attained in the past. It may have been completed either during the time when another action took place or prior to the time another action took place:

• Kaĩ mẽs atvažiãvom, seser̃s šeimà jaũ bùvo išvỹkusi atostogáuti 'When we came my sister's family had already left for vacation'.
• Ingridà sugebė^́jo iškèpti vìštą, kõl svečiai atė^̃jo 'Ingrida was able to fry a chicken before the guests came'.

The frequentative perfect tense is a compound tense formed with the frequentative past of the verb bū^́ti plus the past active participle:

This tense denotes a state which was attained at different times in the past:

• Mẽs jaũ bū^́davom papietãvę, kai į̃ válgomąjį įžeñgdavo jì
• 'We had already finished having dinner when(ever) she entered the dinning-room'.

The future perfect tense is formed with the future tense of the verb bū^́ti plus the appropriate form of the past active participle. The gender and number of the participle depend upon the gender and the number of the subject. A sample conjugation is given below:

The future perfect tense may express an action which will have taken place before another future action takes place. It may also express a condition or state which will last some time in the future as the result of a future action. Sometimes it expresses the probability that an event has taken place, e.g.:

• Jéi tù mán skam̃binsi deviñtą vãlandą rýto, àš jaũ bū^́siu išė^̃jusi į̃ dárbą 'If you call me at nine in the morning, I will have gone to work'.
• Kai ateĩs ruduõ, mẽs nãmą jaũ bū^́sim pastãtę 'When autumn comes we will have built the house'.
• Turbū^́t Rasà bùs nuė^̃jusi miegóti 'Rasa probably must have gone (somewhere) to sleep'.

In English we must use the present tense after 'when', even if a future time is implied. Since this rule does not apply to Lithuanian the future tense must be used when a future time is specified.

The compound tenses of the active voice also occur in the subjunctive and imperative, e.g., bū^́tų beperką̃s; bū^́k beperką̃; bū^́tų pir̃kęs; bū^́k pir̃kęs, e.g.:

• Simonà bū^́tų pir̃kusi, jéi bū^́tų turė^́jusi pinigų̃
• 'Simona would have bought (something), if she had had some money'.

25. Use of the Nominative, Genitive and Dative

All case forms, with the exception of the nominative, dative and locative, may occur either alone or with prepositions. They usually depend on the verbs.

25.1. Nominative

The nominative does not depend on any other word in a clause. Its closest "partner" is a verb. It functions mostly as a subject or predicative complement, e.g.:

• Sáulė yrà mil^̃žiniška žvaigždė^̃
• 'The sun is a large star'.

The nominative case is also used in certain time expressions, e.g.:

• Jaũ kelì mẽtai vãsaros bū^̃na šáltos 'It is already a few years that summers have been cold'.
• Kàs minùtė viduñ įžeñgdavo naũjas klieñtas 'Every minute a new client would come in'.

The accusative, however, is more common under these circumstances in modern Lithuanian.

25.2. Genitive

When not governed by a preposition nouns in the genitive are mostly used as objects or as modifiers. Certain verbs require the direct object in the genitive case rather than in the accusative, e.g., ieškóti, 'to look for', 'to seek'; norė^́ti 'to wish', 'to want'; láukti 'to wait for'; mókytis 'to study', etc.:

• Jìs visuomèt nóri didžiáusio ką^́snio 'He always wants the biggest piece'.
• Daũgelis amerikiẽčių íeško sàvo šaknų̃ Euròpoje 'Many Americans look for their roots in Europe'.
• Láukiame ìš tavę̃s gerų̃ žinių̃ 'We are waiting for good news from you'.

The genitive is used as the direct object of a negated verb, e.g.:

• Jì nevairúoja automobìlio (cf: Jì vairúoja automobìlį)
• 'She does not drive a car' (cf: She drives a car').

The object of an infinitive which is in turn the object of a negated verb may be in the genitive case, e.g.:

• Jì nenóri atidúoti jíems didžiáusio ką^́snio
• 'She does not want to let them have the biggest piece'.

The word ką^́snis 'piece' is in the genitive case although it is the direct object of atidúoti, not nóri 'wants'.

In order to express an indefinite amount or quantity the genitive may be used where either the nominative or accusative would otherwise be required, e.g.:

• Sutikaũ ir̃ blogų̃ žmonių̃ 'I have also met some bad people'.
• Vakarè atvažiãvo draugų̃ 'In the evening some friends came'.
• Kiekvíenas tùrime ýdų 'Everybody has some faults'.

The genitive may be used as a nominal object of an infinitive which follows a verb of motion. In this case it has the meaning of purpose, e.g.:

• Grįžaũ daiktų̃ pasiim̃ti 'I came back to take (my) things'.
• Mẽs važiúojam pir̃kti šaldytùvo 'We are going (somewhere) to buy a refrigerator''.

The verbs pasiim̃ti 'to take' and pir̃kti are transitive verbs and must take a direct object in the accusative case under most other circumstances.

The genitive is used with certain nouns and adverbs of quantity, e.g., kilogrãmas jáutienos 'a kilo of beef'; puodẽlis kavos 'a cup of coffee', daũg mẽdžių 'many trees'; mažaĩ ežerų̃ 'few lakes'.

When the genitive case is used to show possession the noun in the genitive cases is usually placed before the object possessed, e.g., brólio nãmas 'brother's house'; móters pir̃štai 'the woman's fingers'.

Many prepositions require the genitive case. The most common prepositions used with genitive are as follows:

25.3. Dative

The primary function of the dative is that of the indirect object, e.g.:

• Pagaliaũ jìs mán pasãkė teisýbę 'At last he told (to) me the truth'.
• Šią̃ knỹgą paskýriau sàvo senẽliams 'I dedicated this book to my grandparents'.

In many cases, Lithuanian uses the indirect object where in English one uses expressions such as: 'for', 'for the sake of', etc.:

• Draugaĩ Tòmui nupir̃ko šùnį
• 'Friends bought a dog for Thomas'.

The dative may also denote the subject of an impersonal clause, e.g.:

• Mán trū^́ksta išmintiẽs 'I lack wisdom'.
• Jíem bùvo gẽra 'It was nice for both of them'.

The dative case may be used as the object of an infinitive to express purpose. In English we would have a direct object in a corresponding construction, e.g.:

• Keliõnei nusipirkaũ naũją lagamìna 'I have bought a new suitcase for the journey'.
• Kománda reñgėsi revánšui 'The team was preparing for the return game'.

It quite often indicates time, e.g.:

• Sugrįžaũ tìk kelióms dienóms 'I came back only for a few days'.
• Akìmirkai mẽs prarãdome žãdą 'For a moment we were deprived of speech'.