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Old Norse Online

Lesson 1

Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum

Viking Expansion

Although the Scandinavians enter the records of Western Europe sometime around 790 AD, which therefore marks the beginning of the so-called 'Viking Age', these northern peoples had in fact begun a process of expansion some two or three generations before. The first waves of expansion originated in Sweden and Gotland in roughly 700, leading to colonies in modern-day Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia. In grave sites near Libau (in Latvia), we find signs of a community of traders from Gotland accompanied by women. We also find signs of another community of Swedes, but here only males and accompanied solely by battle gear.

The famous attacks of almost a century later were spearheaded by the Norwegians, the most notable early attack being on Lindisfarne in 793. There the Norwegians landed and seized livestock, plundered the monastery, and killed several clergy. It was the desecration of the holy sites which set panic in the hearts of Western Europe as such raids continued in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and northern England.

These raids were nevertheless accompanied by true expansion in the form of colonies. The earliest Norwegian colonies were established around 800 on the Orkney and Shetland islands. Although raids were likely part of their economic input, remains from these settlements show that the inhabitants subsisted on the products of farming, fishing, and seal-hunting. Raids in Ireland increased over the ensuing decades until finally the first Scandinavian settlement was founded at Dublin in 836. Over the next few years the Norwegians strengthened their hold on this harbor under the authority of Thorgisl, whose wife gave prophecies at the altar of the monastery. There is little evidence that the Scandinavians attempted to push their settlements farther inland. They seem content to have secured a few ports, which served as launching points for expeditions to colonize the Isle of Man, Scotland, and other regions. Although most early colonization led to the expulsion of any indigenous population, the settling of the Isle of Man seems to have resulted in a blending of Scandinavian and Celtic culture, illustrated most acutely in the art. Some of the images clearly represent Norse mythology, interfused with Celtic designs and workmanship.

It was not until roughly 860-870 that the Scandinavian seafarers pushed west all the way to Iceland. The first expeditions encountered Irish hermits, but settlement did not start until sometime later. Colonization proceeded for some 60 years, at the end of which the population probably neared 20,000 inhabitatants. The process of settlement is described in Egils saga, whereby the leader of a group of settlers would lay claim to a great expanse of land and delimit the borders by beacons or boundary markers. After exploring the land for some time, they would then erect a permanent farmstead.

The earliest colonizing expeditions came from Norway, where the growing population made land scarce on the mainland. But they were soon followed in large numbers by Danes and Swedes. Though the Danes were preoccupied for most of the early 9th century with raids in England and France, by roughly 870 focus turned toward colonizing the northeast portion of England. Settlements became so numerous that they occupied large portions of Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia. Eventually Alfred, in a treaty, officially recognized much of this as Danish territory, the so-called Danelaw. The question remains open as to whether the lion's share of the settlements was established through occupation by large Danish military forces campaigning in those regions, or by smaller forces and more attendant settlers following in their wake. Between 880 and 920 there was also large-scale settlement on the Continent, in the area of Normandy. Though the leader Rollo is said to have been Norwegian, the sources of the place-names suggest that a large number of the settlers were Danes.

In England there was peace for some 50 years, but in the 980s the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes combined forces and proceeded to raid the English coasts. In 994 one party attacked London, but ceased when they were paid off at a sum of 16,000 pounds of silver. In 1002, Ethelred the Unready ordered the massacre of all Danes south of the Danelaw, which had the unfortunate result of inciting King Svein of Denmark to attack England. The invasion was bought off at a price of 36,000 pounds of silver. Svein returned in 1013 to conquer England, in which he succeeded as Ethelred fled to Normandy. Ethelred regained control when Svein died the following year, but Svein's son Cnut wrested control from Ethelred and became ruler of England at the tender age of 20.

At roughly the same time, the Scandinavians made their final push westward. The Icelander Erik the Red rediscovered Greenland in 982, and colonization began a few years later. In time the two main settlements grew to an estimated 3,000 inhabitants. Some homes still survive which were made of turf or stone, as well as a chapel erected in 1001 by Erik's wife. Farming consisted primarily of tending cattle, sheep and goats, but there is some evidence of less than successful attempts to grow grain. The inevitable finding of America may have come at first by accident, discovered by a certain Bjarni in 986. He apparently drifted off his course for Greenland in a fog and sighted an unfamiliar land several times before heading northeast and finally reaching Greenland. Years later, in 1003, Erik's son Leif the Lucky decided to investigate Bjarni's reports further and made his way to the newly dubbed Vinland.

Author Introduction

Ari Þorgilsson (1067-1148) was a meticulous historical researcher whose works laid the foundations for many of the later sagas. He was preoccupied with correctly establishing dates, sifting through evidence and often quoting his sources. The reliability of his research methods is almost unrivalled among later saga writers. His life and works are described in the preface of Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla. From what information can be gathered concerning Ari, it seems he authored Íslendingabók, a work now lost. This contained lives of kings and genealogies. He also authored another work, the Libellus Islandorum, which is often called Íslendingabók. It gives a brief history of the settlement of Iceland. A comment in Landnámabók suggests that he may have assisted in the compilation of this work as well, but it is likely that the contents are merely based on the information of Ari's own works.

Lesson 1 Text

The following passage comes from the Libellus Islandorum. The beginning relates the conditions that led to the work's composition, and its relation to the earlier Íslendingabók. It continues with the first settlement of Iceland in the year 870 AD. The prose style is simple and straightforward, without the literary polish of many later saga writers. Ari is quick to establish the authority of his sources, breaking off in the middle of a sentence to do so at some length. He is also quick to establish dates, anchoring events to the year of a king's reign.

Íslendingabók gørða ek fyrst biskupum várum Þorláki ok Katli, ok sýnda ek bæði þeim ok Sæmundi presti.

En með því at þeim líkaði svá at hafa eða þar viðr auka, þá skrifaða ek þessa of it sama far, fyr útan Ættar-tǫlu ok Konunga-ævi.

Ok jók ek því er mér varð síðan kunnara, ok nú er gørr sagt á þessi en á þeirri.

En hvatki er missagt er í frœðum þessum, þá er skylt at hafa þat heldr er sannara reynisk.

Frá Íslands bygð.

Ísland bygðisk fyrst ór Norvegi á dǫgum Haralds ins Hárfagra, Hálfdanarsonar ins Svarta, í þann tíð -- at ætlun ok tǫlu þeira Teits fóstra mins, þess manns er ek kunna spakastan, sonar Ísleifs biskups ; ok Þorkels fǫðurbróður mins, Gellissonar, er langt mundi fram; ok Þóríðar Snorradóttur Goða, er bæði var margspǫk ok ólúgfróð -- er Ívarr, Ragnarsson Loðbrókar, lét drepa Eadmund inn Helga Englakonung.

En þat var dccclxx vetra eptir burð Krists, at því er ritit er í sǫgu hans.

Ingófr hét maðr Norrœnn, er sannliga er sagt at fœri fyrst þaðan til Íslands, þá er Haraldr inn Hárfagri var xvj vetra gamall, en í annat sinn fám vetrum siðar.

Hann bygði suðr í Reykjarvík.

Þar er Ingólfshǫfði kallaðr, fyr austan Minþakseyri, sem hann kom fyrst á land ; en þar Ingólfsfell fyr vestan Ǫlfossá, er hann lagði sína eigu á síðan.

Í þann tíð var Ísland viði vaxit í miðli fjals ok fjǫru.

Þá váru hér menn Kristnir þeir er Norðmenn kalla papa.

En þeir fóru síðan á braut, af því at þeir vildu eigi vera hér við heiðna menn, ok létu eptir bœkr Írskar ok bjǫllur ok bagla : at því mátti skilja at þeir váru menn Írskir.

En þá varð fǫr manna mikil mjǫk út hingat ór Norvegi, til þess unz konungrinn Haraldr bannaði, af því at honum þótti landauðn nema.

Þá sættusk þeir á þat, at hverr maðr skyldi gjalda konungi fimm aura, sá er eigi væri frá því skiliðr, ok þaðan fœri hingat.

En svá er sagt at Haraldr væri lxx vetra konungr, ok yrði áttrœðr.

Þau hafa upphǫf verit at gjaldi því er nú er kallat landaurar.

En þar galzk stundum meira, en stundum minna, unz Óláfr inn Digri gørði skýrt at hverr maðr skyldi gjalda konungi hálfa mǫrk, sá er fœri á miðli Norvegs ok Íslands, nema konur eða þeir menn er hann næmi frá.

Svá sagði Þorkell oss Gellisson.

Lesson Text

Íslendingabók gørða ek fyrst biskupum várum Þorláki ok Katli, ok sýnda ek bæði þeim ok Sæmundi presti. En með því at þeim líkaði svá at hafa eða þar viðr auka, þá skrifaða ek þessa of it sama far, fyr útan Ættar-tǫlu ok Konunga-ævi. Ok jók ek því er mér varð síðan kunnara, ok nú er gørr sagt á þessi en á þeirri. En hvatki er missagt er í frœðum þessum, þá er skylt at hafa þat heldr er sannara reynisk.

Frá Íslands bygð.

Ísland bygðisk fyrst ór Norvegi á dǫgum Haralds ins Hárfagra, Hálfdanarsonar ins Svarta, í þann tíð -- at ætlun ok tǫlu þeira Teits fóstra mins, þess manns er ek kunna spakastan, sonar Ísleifs biskups ; ok Þorkels fǫðurbróður mins, Gellissonar, er langt mundi fram; ok Þóríðar Snorradóttur Goða, er bæði var margspǫk ok ólúgfróð -- er Ívarr, Ragnarsson Loðbrókar, lét drepa Eadmund inn Helga Englakonung. En þat var dccclxx vetra eptir burð Krists, at því er ritit er í sǫgu hans.

Ingófr hét maðr Norrœnn, er sannliga er sagt at fœri fyrst þaðan til Íslands, þá er Haraldr inn Hárfagri var xvj vetra gamall, en í annat sinn fám vetrum siðar. Hann bygði suðr í Reykjarvík. Þar er Ingólfshǫfði kallaðr, fyr austan Minþakseyri, sem hann kom fyrst á land ; en þar Ingólfsfell fyr vestan Ǫlfossá, er hann lagði sína eigu á síðan. Í þann tíð var Ísland viði vaxit í miðli fjals ok fjǫru.

 Þá váru hér menn Kristnir þeir er Norðmenn kalla papa. En þeir fóru síðan á braut, af því at þeir vildu eigi vera hér við heiðna menn, ok létu eptir bœkr Írskar ok bjǫllur ok bagla : at því mátti skilja at þeir váru menn Írskir.

 En þá varð fǫr manna mikil mjǫk út hingat ór Norvegi, til þess unz konungrinn Haraldr bannaði, af því at honum þótti landauðn nema. Þá sættusk þeir á þat, at hverr maðr skyldi gjalda konungi fimm aura, sá er eigi væri frá því skiliðr, ok þaðan fœri hingat. En svá er sagt at Haraldr væri lxx vetra konungr, ok yrði áttrœðr. Þau hafa upphǫf verit at gjaldi því er nú er kallat landaurar. En þar galzk stundum meira, en stundum minna, unz Óláfr inn Digri gørði skýrt at hverr maðr skyldi gjalda konungi hálfa mǫrk, sá er fœri á miðli Norvegs ok Íslands, nema konur eða þeir menn er hann næmi frá. Svá sagði Þorkell oss Gellisson.

Translation

I composed the Book of Icelanders first for our bishops Thorlak and Ketil, and I showed it both to them and to the priest Saemund. But as it pleased them to have it so or for it to be augmented, I have written this one concerning the same topic, without the Genealogy and the Kings' Lives. I have added what later became more clear to me, and it now deals more fully with this or that story. And whatever is misstated in these histories, it should later be necessary to have that instead which should prove more correct.
On the Settlement of Iceland
Iceland was settled first from Norway in the days of Harald the Fair-Haired, son of Halfdan the Black, at that time -- according to the opinion and reckoning of my foster-brother Teit, a man I regard as very learned, son of the bishop Isleif; and of my uncle Thorkel, son of Gellir, who could remember a long time back; and of Thorith, daughter of Snorri the Chief, who was both greatly wise and steeped in tradition -- when Ivar, son of Shaggy-Breeches Ragnar, ordered Saint Edmund, king of the Angles, to be killed. And that was 870 years after the birth of Christ, as it is written in his story.
The Norwegian man was called Ingolf, who it's said had actually first travelled from there to Iceland, when Harald the Fair-Haired was 16 years old; and then on another journey a few years later. He settled south in Reykjavik. The place is called Ingolf's Head, east of Minthak's Shoal, where he first came to land; and Ingolf's Fell west of Ale-Force River, which he afterwards took possession of. At that time Iceland was covered with forest between mountain and beach.
There were Christian men in this place, whom the Norwegians called "papas". But they later went on their way, since they did not want to stay here with heathen men, and they left behind their Irish books and bells and bagals: in this way they were able to determine that they were Irish men.
There was a very extensive migration of people out to here from Norway, up to the point when king Harald banned it, since it seemed to him to amount to a depopulation. Then they settled on this, that each man should pay the king five ounces of silver, and he should not be exempt from this, whosoever would journey here from there. And so it is said that Harald was king 70 years, and reached eighty years old. These have become the basis for the tax which is now called land-dues. Sometimes more were paid, sometimes less, until Olaf the Thick made definite that each man should pay the king a half mark, whoever would travel between Norway and Iceland, except women or those men whom he should exempt. So Thorkel, son of Gellir, told us.

Grammar

1. The Alphabet

The earliest records of the Old Norse (ON) language are found in runic inscriptions. A literary language began to emerge around 1100 AD, whose manuscripts are written in an alphabet adopted from the English literary tradition. The letters of the Old Norse alphabet are given below, along with a rough guide to their pronunciation in the "classical period", ca. 1150-1350 AD. The numbers indicate that several consonants had differing pronunciations depending on their phonetic environment. These differences are indicated in the last column.

Letter   Pronunciation   Environment
         
á   a as in 'father', long    
a   a as in 'father', short    
b   b as in 'boy'    
c   c as in 'call'    
d   d as in 'day'    
ð   th as in 'this'    
é   é as in French 'été', long    
e   é as in French 'été', short    
f   (1) f as in 'far'   initial position
    (2) v as in 'very'   medial or final position
g   (1) g as in 'goal'   initial position; immediately following n
    (2) ch as in Scots 'loch'   immediately preceding s or t
    (3) ch as in Scots 'loch', but voiced   otherwise
h   h as in 'have'    
í   ee as in 'feet', long    
i   ee as in 'feet', short    
j   y as in 'year'    
k   (1) c as in 'call'   all environments other than (2), below
    (2) ch as in Scots 'loch'   immediately before s or t
l   (1) l as in 'leaf'   initially; standing next to d, n, l, r; following an unaccented vowel
    (2) l as in 'leaf', but voiceless   immediately following h at the beginning of a word; at the end of a word when following a voiceless consonant; between voiceless consonants
    (3) le as in 'people'   otherwise
m   m as in 'home'    
n   (1) n as in 'sin'   all environments other than (2) or (3), below
    (2) n as in 'sin', but voiceless   immediately following h at the beginning of a word; at the end of a word when following a voiceless consonant; between voiceless consonants
    (3) ng as in 'sing'   immediately preceding g or k
ó   o as in 'vote', long    
o   o as in 'vote', short    
p   (1) pp as in 'happy'   all environments other than (2), below
    (2) f as in 'far'   immediately before s or t
q   c as in 'call'   only in digraph qu, usually written kv
r   r as in 'rather', but trilled    
s   s as in 'this'    
t   t as in 'boat'    
ú   oo as in 'droop', long    
u   oo as in 'droop', short    
v   b as in Spanish 'saber'    
w   w as in 'win'    
x   chs as in Scots 'lochs'    
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