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Old Norse Online

Lesson 3

Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum

The Gokstad Ship

It is through their seafaring skills that the Vikings entered the historical records of Western Europe, descending upon the coastal towns from the high seas. At the time the Continent encountered the Vikings, they truly wielded a mastery of the waves unparalled elsewhere in Europe, both in ship construction and in navigational skill. Fortunately some remnants of these ships have survived, so that comparison with artistic depictions in regions attacked or settled by the Scandinavians, and with the written accounts of the Scandinavians themselves, allows for a fairly robust understanding of their capabilities on the open sea.

The best preserved remnant of a Viking ship comes from a grave at Gokstad, near the Oslo Fjord. The situation of the burial was fortunate, since all of the ship below the figurehead was buried in a thick clay which lent itself to excellent preservation. The burial dates to roughly 900, and the ship measures 76 feet 6 inches from stem to stern, and 17 feet 6 inches at the beam, with a draught of some 3 feet. The keel is formed from a single oak, capped by ends which rise but whose tops have unfortunately rotted away.

The rest of the hull is built clinker style from 16 planks, each overlapping the one below and riveted to it. These planks are each an inch or less thick, except for the tenth at the waterline and the fourteenth with the oarholes, both of which are slightly thicker. The planks are so thin they can be lifted by one man; they are so flexible that they can be bent with ease some 14 degrees side to side. Each plank runs the length of the ship. In order to produce such long, flexible strips of wood, the shipbuilders took the trunks of large trees and drove wedges into the wood. In contrast to sawing, which cuts across the grain, this method of splitting allows the wood to separate along its grain, leaving a strong but flexible plank. These planks are fitted to 19 ribs, spaced 3 feet apart. Above the waterline the planks are nailed to the ribs, but below they are only lashed with spruce-roots to allow the boat to expand with the stress and strain of the open sea. Employing relatively thin planks retains a light and swift structure.

The shape and construction of the ship contribute in interesting ways to its speed, which was in fact noticeably greater than that of other ships of the period. The clinker building technique, with its overlapping planks, actually forces some air down along the seams and under the ship. This has the effect of producing a faint pocket of air between the hull and the water, reducing the overall drag of the ship. Though the effect is not large, it is perhaps a factor in increasing the speed of the ship. A greater factor is the shape of the ship itself. The narrow prow giving way to a wide, flat midsection allows the ship more to skim over the water, rather than cut through it. As the speed of the boat increases, under moderate surface conditions, the hull actually lifts slightly out of the water, so that there is a mild hydroplaning effect. More than the clinker style construction, this reduces drag, thus increasing speed. These factors, coupled with the overall lightness, gave the viking ship an average speed a few knots greater than anything else sailing the ocean at the time.

The deck consists of floorboards which are not fixed to the vessel, but merely rest upon the crossbeams. They could be lifted to open up storage area, or to allow access for bailing water. Running along the ship below the floorboards is a 12 foot oaken block which served as a base for the mast when raised. The mast was steadied by a longer block above this, with a slit allowing for raising and lowering of the mast. Estimates suggest that the mast itself was approximately 40 feet high. The sail is made not of cloth but rather wool. The wool used was naturally water resistant and flexible, thus allowing the sail to flex in strong winds, yet return to its original shape. The actual rigging used is unclear, none having survived. Images of viking ships suggest that a complicated mesh of ropes may have been used to hem in the sail, perhaps with several members of the crew reigning in different sections. Whether this was the case, or alternatively a wooden yard was set through eyelets at the bottom of the sail, either method would have allowed the ship to run close to the wind. Viking ships are thus not limited to merely running with their back to the wind, but appear to have been able to tack into the wind as well.

The rudder is mounted on the right side (cf. the term starboard), and in shape is nothing more than a broadened oar. It is fastened to the ship by means of an oak block running through the ship's planks, and this in turn is fastened to a strengthened rib. There is a secondary attachment, a strap holding the rudder to the gunwale. The yard-long tiller is detachable, and decorated with a carved animal head. Releasing this strap and hauling a rope attached to the board itself allows the rudder to be raised in shallow water. When fully extended into the water, the rudder projects 18 inches below the keel, providing good lateral resistance.

Introduction

The authorship of Grettis saga is uncertain, as are the origins of many aspects of the story itself. Grettir the Strong was apparently an outlaw in Iceland who lived from 996-1031 AD. The composition of the saga itself, in the form we have it, dates from the 14th century. It is not clear how much of the story is based on actual exploits of the man himself and how much was added from other storytelling traditions current at the time. Many scholars find, within the narrative, elements of the story of Beowulf, and for this reason they suspect that the two tales are in fact variants of the same story. In this view, Beowulf is the high-style retelling, while Grettis saga is the more straightforward, action-packed version. The parallels stem from similar motifs in the primary battles, namely descent into the unknown, the slaying of a beast, the severing of an arm, and retrieval of a weapon. Grettir fights with Glám, a rather typical example of the Icelandic notion of a ghost, more substantial than modern notions of some ethereal vapor, and then fights with the troll-wife. This sequence parallels Beowulf's fight with Grendel and then his mother.

Grettis saga is not only noteworthy for its possible literary heritage. The saga affords one of the few clear descriptions of Scandinavian household layout for the period. The house is described as one large room in which all domestic activities take place. For a time, scholars studying the terminology of other literary records believed that this depiction was too primitive for Viking Age homes, and that other literature suggested more complex structures. In the end, archaeology proved Grettis saga correct; other sagas give misleading descriptions of structures of the time, and still others use terminology too vague to lead to any definite conclusions.

Lesson 3 Text

The following passage from chapter 35 begins the scene of Grettir's fight with Glám. The narrative style is simple and direct. The beginning shows the slow build up and suspense of any modern ghost story or thriller. Many of the details of the fight parallel Beowulf's fight with Grendel, such as the contest of sheer strength rather than weaponry; even the emotional content is similar, with Grendel's surprise at Beowulf's strength and his desire to flee all displayed by Glám in the following narrative.

Ljós brann í skálanum um nóttina. Ok er af mundi þriðjungr at nótt, heyrði Grettir út dunur miklar.

Var þá farit upp á húsin ok riðit skálanum ok barit hælunum, svá at brakaði í hverju tré.

Því gekk lengi; þá var farit ofan af húsinum ok til dura gengit.

Ok er upp var lokit hurðunni, sá Grettir at þrællinn rétti inn hǫfuðit, ok sýndisk honum afskræmiliga mikit ok undarliga stórskorit.

Glámr fór seint ok réttisk upp, er hann kom inn í dyrnar. Hann gnæfaði ofarliga við ræfrinu.

Snýr skálanum ok lagði handlegginn upp á þvertréit ok gægðisk inn yfir skálann.

Ekki lét bóndi heyra til sín, því at honum þótti œrit um, er hann heyrði hvat um var úti.

Grettir lá kyrr ok hrœrði sik hvergi. Glámr sá at hrúga nǫkkur lá í setinu, ok rézk nú innar eptir skálanum ok þreif í feldinn stundar fast.

Grettir spyrndi í stokkinn ok gekk því hvergi. Glámr hnykti í annat sinn miklu fastara, ok bifaðisk hvergi feldrinn.

Í þriðja sinn þreif hann í með báðum hǫndum svá fast at hann rétti Gretti upp ór setinu; kiptu nú í sundr feldinum í millum sín.

Glámr leit á slitrit er hann helt á, ok undraðisk mjǫk hverr svá fast mundi togask við hann.

Ok í því hljóp Grettir undir hendr honum ok þreif um hann miðjan ok spenti á honum hrygginn sem fastast gat hann, ok ætlaði hann at Glámr skyldi kikna við.

En þrællinn lagði at handleggjum Grettis svá fast at hann hǫrfaði allr fyrir orku sakir.

Fór Grettir þá undan í ýmis setin. Gengu þá frá stokkarnir, ok alt brotnaði þat sem fyrir varð.

Vildi Glámr leita út, en Grettir fœrði við fœtr hvar sem hann mátti. En þó gat Glámr dregit hann fram ór skálanum.

Áttu þeir þá allharða sókn, því at þrællinn ætlaði at koma honum út ór bœnum; en svá ilt sem at eiga var við Glám inni, þá sá Grettir at þó var verra at fásk við hann úti, ok því brauzk hann í móti af ǫllu afli at fara út.

Glámr fœrðisk í aukana ok knepti hann at sér, er þeir komu í anddyrit.

Ok er Grettir sér at hann fekk eigi við spornat, hefir hann alt eitt atriðit at hann hleypr sem harðast í fang þrælnum ok spyrnir báðum fótum í jarðfastan stein, er stóð í durunum.

Við þessu bjósk þrællinn eigi; hann hafði þá togazk við at draga Gretti at sér, ok því kiknaði Glámr á bak aptr ok rauk ǫfugr út á dyrnar, svá at herðarnar námu uppdyrit ok ræfrit gekk í sundr, bæði viðirnir ok þekjan frerin; fell hann svá opinn ok ǫfugr út ór húsinu, en Grettir á hann ofan.