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Old Norse Online

Lesson 4

Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum

Women in Viking Society

Women in Norse culture enjoyed a fair bit more stature than those of many other concurrent cultures in Europe. The culture prized women who were autonomous and spirited. The feud involving Angantýr shows quite clearly that women could fill heroic roles just as much as men. It is unclear how often this happened in reality, but the sagas are filled with women who goad their husbands into action with taunts and jibes.

Though a man might often consort with many concubines under one roof, the legal wife's status was ensured primarily by the 'bride-price' paid by her husband. This bride-price, as well as a gift given by the husband to his wife the day after the wedding, remained the property of the wife. Her father also supplied a dowry for the wedding, but this was repaid if the marriage terminated in divorce. A wife did not take the name of her husband, but generally kept her own patronymic, and was free to ally with either family if they fell into dispute. A wife was as free as a husband to seek divorce. The sagas tell of impotence, the husband wearing an effeminate shirt, and the woman wearing pants as grounds for divorce. The method of divorce was simple: gather witnesses, state the particular complaint, and the intention to divorce. The result seemed to carry no social stigma for either party.

Children in Viking Society

Children were generally reared at home, provided they had not been drowned or left out to die of exposure after birth (a measure generally made on grounds of the family's economic situation or because of deformity or other poor health). It was not uncommon, however, for a male child to go to live with another family as a foster-son. This secured ties between families, and in disputes a child would often rely as much upon his foster family as on his own. Children were expected to labor at the household duties. Nevertheless a certain argumentative and unruly nature was not only tolerated, but generally praised.

Illegitimate children were not altogether without rights. They might receive a small amount of the blood-money paid for their father or brother, or could inherit items of minor worth from the father. Often the status of a concubine was not very distinct from that of a legal wife, and in this situation the concubine's child would be treated little different from the wife's. A father might even adopt the illegitimate child, giving legal equality with the legitimate children.

A boy became a legal adult at 12, though usually he stayed at home for a few years more. This early adulthood was often the time for roaming with viking expeditions. Such exploits might last for several years. Typically one would return after some period to a life of farming. But the youth might just as well continue such escapades or take up residence in the retinue of some local leader. After marriage, a son could either take up residence in his father's house, or build one nearby. In Iceland he would typically settle miles away from the father's homestead.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The author of Brennu-Njáls saga is unknown. The saga as we have it dates from roughly 1250-1275 AD. The saga really contains three stories. The first is the story of Gunnar, in which Njál plays a somewhat incidental role. The harsh mannerisms of Gunnar's wife caused many to hold hostility toward Gunnar. After a fight Gunnar was unjustly sentenced to exile, but at the point of departure he could not bring himself to leave the land he held so dear. He stayed as an outlaw, which permitted his enemies to kill him legally.

Njál's story comes to center stage in the following episodes. Njál is known as a wise and generous man, but the impetuous nature of his sons finally brings about his doom. When they slay a man by the name of Þráin, Njál attempts to put an end to the ensuing feud by adopting his son, Hǫskuld. Njál's sons soon find reason to take issue with Hǫskuld, and kill him as well. His widow's kinsman, Flosi, then takes up the cause of revenge, and this leads to Njál's death as his house goes up in flames.

The third story relates how Kári exacts revenge upon those who burned Njál and his family. He finally comes to reconciliation with Flosi.

The following passage is an excerpt from chapter 77, depicting Gunnar's death. Even in light of the ensuing tragedy, the narrative is at times comical. The attackers appear rather inept in carrying out their mission, and their continual failure leads to sarcastic banter. As with the sagas in general, the scene is filled with direct speech. Given the context, there is no reason to suspect that the speech is anything but natural and reflective of Old Norse as it was spoken at the time. This means, of course, that the statements can at times be highly idiomatic and elliptical. But patience is rewarded with witty quips and outright jokes that testify to the longevity of the saga as a popular form of entertainment.

Skáli Gunnars var gǫrr af viði einum ok súðþakiðr útan, ok gluggar hjá brúnásunum ok snúin þar fyrir speld.

Gunnarr svaf í lopti einu í skálanum ok Hallgerðr ok móðir hans.

Þá er þeir kómu at, vissu þeir eigi hvárt Gunnarr myndi heim vera, ok báðu at einnhverr myndi fara heim fyrir ok vita hvers víss yrði, en þeir settusk niðr á vǫllinn.

Þorgrímr austmaðr gekk upp á skálann; Gunnarr sér at rauðan kyrtil bar við glugginum, ok leggr út með atgeirinum á hann miðjan.

Þorgrími skruppu fœtrnir ok varð lauss skjǫldrinn, ok hrataði hann ofan af þekjunni.

Gengr hann síðan at þeim Gizuri, þar er þeir sátu á vellinum. Gizurr leit við honum ok mælti, "Hvárt er Gunnarr heima?"

Þorgrímr svarar, "Viti þér þat, en hitt vissa ek, at atgeirr hans var heima." Síðan fell hann niðr dauðr.

Þeir sóttu þá at húsinum. Gunnarr skaut út ǫrum at þeim ok varðisk vel, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt.

Þá hljópu sumir á húsin ok ætluðu þaðan at sœkja. Gunnarr kom þangat at þeim ǫrunum, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt, ok fór svá fram um hríð.

Þeir tóku hvílð ok sóttu at í annat sinn. Gunnarr skaut enn út, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt ok hrukku frá í annat sinn.

Þá mælti Gizurr Hvíti, "Sœkjum at betr, ekki verðr af oss." Gørðu þeir þá hríð ina þriðju ok váru við lengi; eptir þat hrukku þeir frá.

Gunnarr mælti, "Ǫr liggr þar úti á vegginum, ok er sú af þeira ǫrum, ok skal ek þeiri skjóta til þeira, ok er þeim þat skǫmm, ef þeir fá geig at vápnum sínum."

Móðir hans mælti, "Gør þú eigi þat, at þú vekir þá, er þeir hafa áðr frá horfit."

Gunnarr þreif ǫrina ok skaut til þeira, ok kom á Eilíf Ǫnundarson, ok fekk hann af sár mikit. Hann hafði staðit einn saman, ok vissu þeir eigi at hann var særðr.

"Hǫnd kom þar út," segir Gizurr, "ok var á gullhringr, ok tók ǫr er lá á þekjunni, ok myndi eigi út leitat viðfanga, ef gnógt væri inni, ok skulu vér nú sœkja at."

Mǫrðr mælti, "Brennu vér hann inni."

"Þat skal verða aldri," segir Gizurr, "þó at ek vita at líf mitt liggi við. Er þér sjálfrátt at leggja til ráð þau er dugi, svá slœgr maðr sem þú ert kallaðr."

Lesson Text

Skáli Gunnars var gǫrr af viði einum ok súðþakiðr útan, ok gluggar hjá brúnásunum ok snúin þar fyrir speld. Gunnarr svaf í lopti einu í skálanum ok Hallgerðr ok móðir hans. Þá er þeir kómu at, vissu þeir eigi hvárt Gunnarr myndi heim vera, ok báðu at einnhverr myndi fara heim fyrir ok vita hvers víss yrði, en þeir settusk niðr á vǫllinn. Þorgrímr austmaðr gekk upp á skálann; Gunnarr sér at rauðan kyrtil bar við glugginum, ok leggr út með atgeirinum á hann miðjan. Þorgrími skruppu fœtrnir ok varð lauss skjǫldrinn, ok hrataði hann ofan af þekjunni. Gengr hann síðan at þeim Gizuri, þar er þeir sátu á vellinum. Gizurr leit við honum ok mælti, "Hvárt er Gunnarr heima?"
 Þorgrímr svarar, "Viti þér þat, en hitt vissa ek, at atgeirr hans var heima." Síðan fell hann niðr dauðr.
 Þeir sóttu þá at húsinum. Gunnarr skaut út ǫrum at þeim ok varðisk vel, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt. Þá hljópu sumir á húsin ok ætluðu þaðan at sœkja. Gunnarr kom þangat at þeim ǫrunum, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt, ok fór svá fram um hríð. Þeir tóku hvílð ok sóttu at í annat sinn. Gunnarr skaut enn út, ok gátu þeir ekki at gǫrt ok hrukku frá í annat sinn.
 Þá mælti Gizurr Hvíti, "Sœkjum at betr, ekki verðr af oss." Gørðu þeir þá hríð ina þriðju ok váru við lengi; eptir þat hrukku þeir frá.
 Gunnarr mælti, "Ǫr liggr þar úti á vegginum, ok er sú af þeira ǫrum, ok skal ek þeiri skjóta til þeira, ok er þeim þat skǫmm, ef þeir fá geig at vápnum sínum."
 Móðir hans mælti, "Gør þú eigi þat, at þú vekir þá, er þeir hafa áðr frá horfit."
 Gunnarr þreif ǫrina ok skaut til þeira, ok kom á Eilíf Ǫnundarson, ok fekk hann af sár mikit. Hann hafði staðit einn saman, ok vissu þeir eigi at hann var særðr.
 "Hǫnd kom þar út," segir Gizurr, "ok var á gullhringr, ok tók ǫr er lá á þekjunni, ok myndi eigi út leitat viðfanga, ef gnógt væri inni, ok skulu vér nú sœkja at."
 Mǫrðr mælti, "Brennu vér hann inni."
 "Þat skal verða aldri," segir Gizurr, "þó at ek vita at líf mitt liggi við. Er þér sjálfrátt at leggja til ráð þau er dugi, svá slœgr maðr sem þú ert kallaðr."

Translation

Gunnar's hall was made with one beam and overlapping boards on the outside, and there were windows by the ridge-beams and shutters fastened in front of these. Gunnar slept in one loft of the hall, as well as Hallgertha and his mother. When they arrived, they did not know whether Gunnar would be at home, and they said that someone should go up to the house and find out for certain, while the others set themselves down on the ground. Thorgrim, a Norwegian, went up to the hall; Gunnar saw that he bore a red kirtle up to the window, and Gunnar shot out a spear at his midsection. Thorgrim's feet slipped and his shield came loose, and he tumbled down off the thatch. Then he went back to the rest, Gizur among them, where they sat on the ground. Gizur looked at him and said, "Is Gunnar home?"
Thorgrim answered, "You find out; but I discovered this: his spear was home." Then he fell dead.
Then they rushed at the house. Gunnar lashed out at them with arrows and defended himself well, and so they got nothing done. Then some lept upon the house and intended to attack from there. There Gunnar came at them with arrows, and again they got nothing done, and it went on like this for a while. They took a rest and then attacked a second time. Gunnar shot some more, and they got nothing done and so retreated a second time.
Then Gizur the Fair said, "Let's press harder -- nothing comes of us." Then they made a third attempt and were at it a while; after that they retreated.
Gunnar said, "An arrow is sitting out there on the wall, and it's one of their arrows; I'll shoot it at them, and it'll be a shame if they take a hit with their own weapons."
His mother said, "Don't do that, or you'll rouse them when they've already given up."
Gunnar snatched the arrow and shot at them, and it came at Eilif Onundarson, and he received a great wound. He had been standing alone, and they did not know that he was wounded.
"A hand came out", said Gizur, "and a gold ring was on it, and it took an arrow which was stuck in the thatch; it wouldn't seek supplies outside if there were enough inside -- so we should attack now."
Morth said, "Let's burn him inside."
"That won't ever happen", said Gizur, "since I know that my life will go with it. But you're free to come up with some plans that would work, as you're supposed to be a clever fellow."

Grammar

16. Weak Nominal Declension

In contrast to the situation regarding adjectives, the property of being weak or strong is inherent in any given noun. A noun is either strong or weak lexically, and does not change depending on context. Thus maðr 'man' is strong, and so takes strong nominal endings at all times. But bani 'bane' is weak, and takes weak endings always. The weak nouns are historically n-stems, and are typically classified as such in the standard grammars. The -n has dropped, however, in most forms by the period of ON. It survives only regularly in the G pl. of feminine and neuter nouns, but rarely in masculines. The -n is less common in prose, but shows up in forms other than the G pl. in poetry.

Several feminine weak nouns show j before the vowel of the case marker. In stems ending in a velar, the j drops before the G pl. -na. Thus kirkja 'church', but kirkna 'of churches'. Stems which do not end in a velar take the G pl. ending -a and retain the j, e.g. hetja 'hero' vs. hetja 'of heroes'.

The stem-final i of masculine weak nouns is retained as j when it follows a velar and precedes a or u. Thus Væringi 'Varangian' vs. N pl. Væringjar 'Varangians' and D pl. Væringjum 'to the Varangians'. The i is also retained in some nouns when preceded by non-velars.

16.1. an/jan-Stems

The an- and jan-stem weak nouns are generally masculine and neuter. The masculine nouns are characterized by the vowel -i in the N sg., while the neuter shows -a. Both genders have -a in all the singular oblique forms. The masculine nouns bogi 'bow', bryti 'bailiff', gumi 'man', and the neuter hjarta 'heart', illustrate the declension.

    Masculine   Neuter        
                 
Stem   bogi-   bryti-   gumi-   hjarta-
                 
N Sg.   bogi   bryti   gumi   hjarta
A   boga   brytja   guma   hjarta
G   boga   brytja   guma   hjarta
D   boga   brytja   guma   hjarta
                 
N Pl.   bogar   brytjar   gum(n)ar   hjǫrtu
A   boga   brytja   gum(n)a   hjǫrtu
G   boga   brytja   gumna   hjartna
D   bogum   brytjum   gum(n)um   hjǫrtum
                 
16.2. ōn/jōn-Stems

All ōn/jōn-stem weak nouns are feminine. These nouns are characterized by a stem, and hence N sg., ending in -a. The singular oblique cases end in -