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Old Norse Online

Lesson 6

Todd B. Krause and Jonathan Slocum

Viking Skills

Though ostensibly ruffians from the viewpoint of those they invaded, the Vikings nevertheless had a more cultured and refined aspect to their way of life when at home. When we consider the volume of Old Norse literature, it becomes clear that their culture highly prized, if not writing itself, at least stories artistically wrought and poetry of great complexity. But from the stories themselves we find other skills and amusements which were highly esteemed. A passage from Earl Rognvald of the Orkneys (1135-58) lists them clearly:

    "There are nine skills known to me --
    At 'tables' I play ably;
    Rarely I run out of runes;
    Reading, smith-craft, both come ready;
    I can skim the ground on skis,
    Wield a bow, do well in rowing;
    To both arts I can bend my mind:
    Poet's lay and harper's playing."
    (trans. Jacqueline Simpson)

It is not altogether clear what is meant by 'tables'. Some render the term 'draughts', but this game probably came to Europe later than would be fitting for many of the references in Old Norse literature. The term was likely a catch-all for several different games, many of which seem to have specific names in Old Norse formed as compound words. Game pieces are found in many Scandinavian graves, but it is rarely clear if the set is complete, and, if so, how it was used. One game board found in Balinderry consists of a seven by seven array of holes in which bone pegs were placed.

The topic of 'runes' inevitably leads to great mystery and speculation. In many contexts, this seems to be a natural result of a deliberate veil of secrecy on the part of the Scandinavians, since the runes were intimately bound with magical rituals of various sorts. But not always. The earliest runic inscriptions in the Germanic speaking community employed an alphabet of some 24 characters, but later this was reduced to 16. Their origin is typically ascribed to divine intervention, as is true of writing in many cultures -- in Norse culture authority is ascribed to Odin. Rognvald's phrasing suggests that 'runes' be interpreted as 'spell', so that his implication is that he knows a wealth of incantations of all sorts. But a more strictly utilitarian interpretation is possible, since by that time runes were used in more pedestrian situations. Often runes were employed for burial inscriptions, or even for marks of ownership such as 'this belongs to...'. In this sense, Rognvald's statement may merely refer to knowledge of the alphabet.

It is telling, nevertheless, that 'reading' is not equated with runes. This comes as no surprise, since we find no sagas or the like etched out in runes. But it lends credence to the idea that 'runes' is better understood as 'spells', since 'reading' itself implies 'knowing an alphabet' (of whatever sort). (See Lesson 10 for more about runes.)

'Smith-craft' properly includes a whole host of skills, and it is not clear if Rognvald meant any one in particular. Excavations show clear remnants of metal-working, wood-carving, carpentry, and bone-carving, among others. The most finely wrought examples certainly would have been made by professional craftsmen, but especially those relating to carving readily available materials such as wood or bone could be expected to be practiced by the non-professional with some high degree of skill. Metal weapons with intricately carved designs are a common reference in the earliest Germanic literature, highly valued and often magically created. But intricate designs are also found in the woodwork of homes, on roof-posts and wall panels. Several picture-stones in Gotland contain figures carved in relief, with background and foreground originally painted in various colors.

Skiing, archery, and rowing. Certainly there is no surprise when such physical prowess is listed among the essential skills of Scandinavian culture. One wonders why these in particular were singled out by Rognvald, when certainly other physical contests were also popular. Wrestling was a common sport, evidently practiced at times in a fairly brutal fashion if we are to take anything from the story of two wrestlers who heartily thanked Grettir for the bloody beating they received at his hands. One may suspect, however, that a skill such as archery, though originally cultivated for deadly results, may have been elevated above such a utilitarian purpose and its more exacting nuances deemed an esoteric skill worthy of devoted practice. Similar ideas about archery are found in cultures of the Far East. Perhaps skiing and rowing were held in a similar regard.

Fortunately poetry and recitation were skills of extreme importance in Scandinavian culture. Were they not, this series of lessons would be quite a bit thinner. Early on, and apparently throughout Scandinavian culture, poetic composition and recitation was a professional occupation, the purview of skálds, or 'court poets'. Remnants of this era are presevered in quotes scattered throughout the literature. But as the heyday of the court poet was nearing its end, Snorri produced the Skáldskaparmál, or 'Treatise on Poetic Composition'. This work gives a detailed description of the technical principles underlying skaldic poetry, and it can be stated with little exaggeration that this literature was among the most complex achieved anywhere in Europe. What is more, Snorri adds a wealth of pertinent mythological information, since by this time, the poetic skill had become so ornate that the allusions made were often confusing or unknown to the listener of Snorri's time. The skalds had cultivated a penchant for 'kennings', whereby a sentiment such as 'the generous king gave me a gold arm-ring' was conveyed by 'the scatterer of riches hung the burden of Grani upon the falcon's tree'. The intended meaning only becomes clear if one knows that Sigurd's horse Grani toted gold from a dragon's lair, and that the 'falcon's tree' is a man's forearm, where the falcon comes to rest.

Poetry by Snorri's time, however, was not solely meant for professionals. Noblemen often displayed an affinity for composing verse, all the more interesting because some of the instances occur on the battlefield. The verses might encapsulate a boast, or even a prediction of doom. And as in the story of Egil, it is clear that a well-composed poem eloquently delivered at the right moment might just save your neck.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The following selection comes from Hrólfs saga, which dates to some time in the late 14th century. The saga contains remnants of the legend of the Skjǫldungs, known as the Scyldings in the epic Beowulf. Their story is not told in the poetic style of Beowulf, but rather in a much more direct and viscerally entertaining narrative style. Emphasis is placed on amusing anecdote, rather than on the pan-Germanic theme of tragic heroism. The episode of Bǫðvarr Bjarki at the Danish court is linked by many researchers to the story of Beowulf at Hrothgar's court. In each story the hero arrives to rid the court of the beast which has been ravaging the land.

In the passage below, Bǫðvarr comes to Hrólf's court after staying with a peasant couple living in the area. The couple tells of their son, Hǫttr, who is up at the court and has been continually harassed by Hrólf's retainers. They have taken up the habit of throwing bones at the poor youth. The peasant couple asks that, in return for their hospitality, Bǫðvarr should only throw small bones at their son, so as not to excessively hurt the boy.

The present tense is used throughout the Old Norse passage to lend dramatic effect to the narrative. Old Norse tolerates this sort of historical present much more than Modern English. The translation therefore usually renders present tense verbs by past tenses, though the English present is employed in certain situations where it seems natural.

Síðan fór Bǫðvarr leið sína til Hleiðargarðs. hann kømr til konungs atsetu. Bǫðvarr leiðir síðan hest sinn á stall hjá konungs hestum hinum beztu ok spyrr engan at; gekk síðan inn í hǫllina, ok var þar fátt manna.

Hann sezk útarliga, ok sem hann hefir verit þar lítla hríð, heyrir hann þrausk nǫkkut útar í hornit í einhverjum stað.

Bǫðvarr lítr þangat ok sér at mannshǫnd kømr upp ór mikilli beinahrúgu, er þar lá; hǫndin var svǫrt mjǫk. Bǫðvarr gengr þangat til ok spyrr hverr þar væri í beinahrúgunni.

Þá var honum svarat ok heldr óframliga: "Hǫttr heiti ek, bokki sæll." "Hví ertu hér", segir Bǫðvarr, "eða hvat gørir þú?" Hǫttr segir, "Ek gøri mér skjaldborg, bokki sæll."

Bǫðvarr sagði, "Vesall ertu þinnar skjaldborgar!" Bǫðvarr þrífir til hans ok hnykkir honum upp ór beinahrúgunni.

Hǫttr kvað þá hátt við ok mælti, "Nú viltu mér bana! Gør eigi þetta, svá sem ek hefi nú vel um búizk áðr, en þú hefir nú rótat í sundr skjaldborg minni, ok hafða ek nú svá gǫrt hana háva útan at mér, at hon hefir hlíft mér við ǫllum hǫggum ykkar, svá at engi hǫgg hafa komit á mik lengi, en ekki var hon enn svá búin sem ek ætlaði hon skyldi verða."

Bǫðvarr mælti: "Ekki muntu fá skjaldborgina lengr." Hǫttr mælti ok grét: "Skaltu nú bana mér, bokki sæll?"

Bǫðvarr bað hann ekki hafa hátt, tók hann upp síðan ok bar hann út ór hǫllinni ok til vatns nǫkkurs sem þar var í nánd, ok gáfu fáir at þessu gaum, ok þó hann upp allan.

Síðan gekk Bǫðvarr til þess rúms sem hann hafði áðr tekit, ok leiddi eptir sér Hǫtt ok þar setr hann Hǫtt hjá sér. En hann er svá hræddr at skelfr á honum leggr ok liðr, en þó þykkisk hann skilja at þessi maðr vill hjálpa sér.

Eptir þat kveldar ok drífa menn í hǫllina ok sjá Hrólfs kappar at Hǫttr er settr á bekk upp, ok þykkir þeim sá maðr hafa gǫrt sik œrit djarfan, er þetta hefir til tekit.

Ilt tillit hefir Hǫttr, þá er hann sér kunningja sína, því at hann hefir ilt eitt at þeim reynt; hann vill lifa gjarnan ok fara aptr í beinahrúgu sína, en Bǫðvarr heldr honum, svá at hann náir ekki í brottu at fara, því at hann þóttisk ekki jafnberr fyrir hǫggum þeira, ef hann næði þangat at komask, sem hann er nú.

Hirðmenn hafa nú sama vanda, ok kasta fyrst beinum smám um þvert gólfit til Bǫðvars ok Hattar. Bǫðvarr lætr sem hann sjái eigi þetta.

Hǫttr er svá hræddr at hann tekr eigi mat né drykk, ok þykkir honum þá ok þá sem hann muni vera lostinn. Ok nú mælti Hǫttr til Bǫðvars: "Bokki sæll, nú ferr at þér stór knúta, ok mun þetta ætlat okkr til nauða."