Old Church Slavonic Online

Shortly after the death of Methodius, the German clergy once again gained prominence in the Moravian region. In conjunction with Pope Stephen V's decree to ban the Slavonic liturgy, a German Viching was placed as successor to Methodius. This contradicted Methodius' own wish to be succeeded by the native Moravian Gorazd. During this period of German dominance, the disciples of Methodius were persecuted relentlessly, some being driven from the country, others being sold into slavery. This effectively stamped out the last remnants of the original missionary work of Sts. Cyril and Methodius in the regions of their earliest travels. The OCS ecclesiastic tradition was only able to survive outside the reaches of the Moravian empire, in those areas where the disciples of the two saints were able to find refuge.

Initially the influence of the saints' work spread to Bohemia, Croatia, and Bulgaria. These regions were soon followed by Bosnia and Serbia. After Christian conversion took foothold in the region of Kyiv (Russian Kiev), Bulgarian missionaries brought the Slavonic liturgy to the Russian speaking peoples late in the tenth century. This liturgy even spread to non-Slavic Rumania, where it was in use in the churches until the sixteenth century. In the process of this expansion, the Church Slavonic language took on local attributes and ceased to be as homogeneous as it appears in our earliest texts. In most regions to which it spread, the Church Slavonic language became the basis for the earliest literary language of the respective regions. It is therefore not to be viewed simply as the language of the Church in Slavic-speaking areas, but as the common thread unifying the inchoate stages of several developing literary traditions.

Reading and Textual Analysis

The following passage is Matthew 4:1-5, relating the temptation of Jesus in the desert. It is worth noting, in verse 4, that where English has a passive construction 'it is written', OCS employs an active verb пишєтъ 'he/it writes'. This translates a Greek passive perfect gegraptai 'it has been written'.

One will also notice the orthographic convention of using letters of the alphabet to denote numerals, as in verse 2. The system is based on the Greek method, whereby the first nine letters of the alphabet denote the units 1, 2, 3,... 9; the next nine denote the tens 10, 20, 30,... 90; the following letters the hundreds 100, 200, 300,... 900. Thus the number 11 is written by taking the letter for 10, and following it by the letter for 1. The situation, however, is complicated by the fact that the sequence of the Glagolitic and the Cyrillic alphabets differed slightly. Hence the Glagolitic symbol which к transcribes has the numerical value 40; however, within the Cyrillic alphabet, к has the value 20. The passage below is a Cyrillic rendering of an original Glagolitic manuscript, hence к denotes the number 40.

тогда иисѹсъ възвєдєнъ бъістъ дѹхомь въ пѹстъін҄ѭ іскѹсити сѧ отъ нєприѣзни | і пошть сѧ дьниі к і ноштиі к послѣдь възлака |

• тогда -- adverb; <тогда> then -- then
• иисѹсъ -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Иисѹсъ> Jesus -- Jesus
• възвєдєнъ -- verb; past passive participle; nominative singular masculine of <възвєсти, -вєдѫ, -вєдєши> lead, lead up -- led up
• бъістъ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <бъіти, бѫдѫ, бѫдєши> be, become -- was
• дѹхомь -- noun, masculine; instrumental singular of <дѹхъ> spirit -- of the spirit
• въ -- preposition; <въ> in, into -- into
• пѹстъін҄ѭ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <пѹстъін҄и> desert -- the wilderness
• іскѹсити сѧ -- verb; infinitive reflexive of <іскѹсити, -шѫ, -сиши> try, prove, tempt -- to be tempted
• отъ -- preposition; <отъ> by, from, of -- of
• нєприѣзни -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <нєпријазнь> the devil; wickedness -- the devil
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• пошть сѧ -- verb; past reflexive participle; nominative singular masculine of <постити с(, -штѫ, -стиши> fast -- when he had fasted
• дьниі -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <дьнь> day -- days
• к -- number; accusative plural feminine of <чєтъірє дєсѧтє> forty -- forty
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• ноштиі -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <ношть> night -- nights
• к -- number; accusative plural feminine of <чєтъірє дєсѧтє> forty -- forty
• послѣдь -- adverb; <послѣдь> then, afterward -- afterward
• възлака -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <възлакати, -лачѫ, -лачєши> become hungry -- he was... an hungered

і пристѫпи къ н҄ємѹ диѣволъ іскѹшаѧ и і рєчє аштє съінъ єси божіи рьци да камєниє сє хлѣби бѫдѫтъ |

• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and when
• пристѫпи -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <пристѫпити, -пл҄ѭ, -пиши> come up to, step up -- came
• къ -- preposition; <къ> to, for -- to
• н҄ємѹ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• диѣволъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <дьѣволъ> devil -- (the devil)
• іскѹшаѧ -- verb; present active participle; nominative singular masculine of <іскѹшати, -шаѭ, -шаѥши> tempt, try -- the tempter
• и -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <*и> he -- (him)
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- (and)
• рєчє -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <рєшти, рєкѫ, рєчєши> say, tell -- he said
• аштє -- particle; <аштє> if, whether -- if
• съінъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <съінъ> son -- the Son
• єси -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <ѥс-, ѥсмь, ѥси> be -- thou be
• божіи -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <божьи> divine, of god, god's -- of God
• рьци -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <рєшти, рєкѫ, рєчєши> say, tell -- command
• да -- conjunction; <да> in order to, that; may, let; and, then -- that
• камєниє -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <камєньє> stones -- stones
• сє -- demonstrative adjective; nominative singular neuter of <сь> this -- these
• хлѣби -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <хлѣбъ> bread, loaf of bread -- bread
• бѫдѫтъ -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <бъіти, бѫдѫ, бѫдєши> be, become -- be made

онъ жє отъвѣштавъ рєчє пишєтъ нє о хлѣбѣ єдиномь поживєтъ чловѣкъ нъ о всємь глаголѣ ісходѧштиімь іѕ ѹстъ божіи |

• онъ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <онъ> that -- he
• жє -- conjunction; <жє> and, but -- but
• отъвѣштавъ -- verb; past active participle; nominative singular masculine of <отвѣштати, -таѭ, -таѥши> respond, answer -- answered
• рєчє -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <рєшти, рєкѫ, рєчєши> say, tell -- (and) said
• пишєтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <пьсати, пьшѫ, пьшєши> write -- it is written
• нє -- particle; <нє> not -- not
• о -- preposition; <о> around, concerning; against -- by
• хлѣбѣ -- noun, masculine; locative singular of <хлѣбъ> bread, loaf of bread -- bread
• єдиномь -- adjective; locative singular masculine of <єдинъ> one, only -- alone
• поживєтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <пожити, -живѫ, -живєши> live -- shall... live
• чловѣкъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <чловѣкъ> man, human -- man
• нъ -- conjunction; <нъ> but -- but
• о -- preposition; <о> around, concerning; against -- by
• всємь -- adjective; locative singular masculine of <вьсь> all, every; whole -- every
• глаголѣ -- noun, masculine; locative singular of <глаголъ> word, speech -- word
• ісходѧштиімь -- verb; present active participle; locative singular masculine of <исходити, -ждѫ, -диши> exit from, go out of -- that proceedeth
• іѕ -- preposition; <иц> from, out of -- out of
• ѹстъ -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <ѹста> mouth, lips -- the mouth
• божіи -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <божьи> divine, of god, god's -- of God

тогда поѧтъ и диѣволъ вь свѧтъі градъ і постави і на крилѣ црък҄бьнѣємь |

• тогда -- adverb; <тогда> then -- then
• поѧтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <поѧти, -имѫ, -имєши> take -- taketh... up
• и -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• диѣволъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <дьѣволъ> devil -- the devil
• вь -- preposition; <въ> in, into -- into
• свѧтъі -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <свѧтъ> holy, blessed -- the holy
• градъ -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <градъ> city -- city
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• постави -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <поставити, -вл҄ѭ, -виши> establish, place, set -- setteth
• і -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• на -- preposition; <на> in, on; at, against; for -- on
• крилѣ -- noun, neuter; locative singular of <крило> wing; pinnacle -- a pinnacle
• црък҄бьнѣємь -- adjective; locative singular neuter of <цръкъвьнъ> church, churchly -- of the temple

і глагола ємѹ аштє съінъ єси божьи пѹсти сєбє долѹ | пишєтъ бо ѣко аћєломъ своимъ заповѣстъ о тєбѣ і на рѫкахъ възъмѫтъ тѧ да нє когда прѣтъкнєши о камєнь ногѫ своѭ |

• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• глагола -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <глаголати, -л҄ѭ, -л҄ѥши> say, speak -- saith
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- unto him
• аштє -- particle; <аштє> if, whether -- if
• съінъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <съінъ> son -- the Son
• єси -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <ѥс-, ѥсмь, ѥси> be -- thou be
• божьи -- possessive adjective; locative singular feminine of <божьи> divine, of god, god's -- of God
• пѹсти -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <пѹстити, -штѫ, -стиши> allow, let, free; send (away) -- cast
• сєбє -- reflexive pronoun; genitive singular of <сєбє> self -- thyself
• долѹ -- adverb; <долѹ> down(wards), below -- down
• пишєтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <пьсати, пьшѫ, пьшєши> write -- it is written
• бо -- conjunction; <бо> for -- for
• ѣко -- conjunction; <јако> as, when; in order to; that; because; (introduces quotation) -- ...
• аћєломъ -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <аггєлъ> angel -- angels
• своимъ -- reflexive adjective; dative plural masculine of <свои, своє, своја> own, one's own -- his
• заповѣстъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <заповѣдѣти, -вѣмь, -вѣси> command -- give... charge
• о -- preposition; <о> around, concerning; against -- concerning
• тєбѣ -- pronoun; locative singular of <тъі> you, thou -- thee
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• на -- preposition; <на> in, on; at, against; for -- in
• рѫкахъ -- noun, feminine; locative plural of <рѫка> hand -- (their) hands
• възъмѫтъ -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <възѧти, -зьмѫ, -зьмєши> pick up, take -- shall they bear... up
• тѧ -- pronoun; accusative singular of <тъі> you, thou -- thee
• да -- conjunction; <да> in order to, that; may, let; and, then -- ...
• нє -- particle; <нє> not -- lest
• когда -- interrogative adverb; <когда> when; sometime -- at any time
• прѣтъкнєши -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <прѣтъкнѫти, -нѫ, -нєши> hit, stumble -- thou dash
• о -- preposition; <о> around, concerning; against -- against
• камєнь -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <камєньє> stones -- a stone
• ногѫ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <нога> foot -- foot
• своѭ -- reflexive adjective; accusative singular feminine of <свои, своє, своја> own, one's own -- thy

рєчє жє ємѹ иисѹсъ пакъі пишєтъ нє іскѹсиши господа бога своєго |

• рєчє -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <рєшти, рєкѫ, рєчєши> say, tell -- said
• жє -- conjunction; <жє> and, but -- ...
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- unto him
• иисѹсъ -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Иисѹсъ> Jesus -- Jesus
• пакъі -- adverb; <пакъі> back, again -- again
• пишєтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <пьсати, пьшѫ, пьшєши> write -- it is written
• нє -- particle; <нє> not -- not
• іскѹсиши -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <искѹсити, -шѫ, -сиши> try, prove, tempt -- thou shalt... tempt
• господа -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <господь> lord, master -- the Lord
• бога -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <богъ> god -- God
• своєго -- reflexive adjective; genitive singular masculine of <свои, своє, своја> own, one's own -- thy

пакъі поѣтъ єго нєприѣзнь на горѫ въісокѫ ѕѣло і показа ємѹ вьсѣ цѣсарьстбиѣ мира і цлавѫ єго |

• пакъі -- adverb; <пакъі> back, again -- again
• поѣтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <поѧти, -имѫ, -имєши> take -- taketh... up
• єго -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• нєприѣзнь -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <нєпријазнь> the devil; wickedness -- the devil
• на -- preposition; <на> in, on; at, against; for -- into
• горѫ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <гора> mountain -- mountain
• въісокѫ -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <въісокъ> high, tall -- an... high
• ѕѣло -- adverb; <зѣло> very -- exceeding
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• показа -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <показати, -заѭ, -заѥши> show, instruct, correct, chasten -- sheweth
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• вьсѣ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <вьсь> all, every; whole -- all
• цѣсарьстбиѣ -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <цѣсарьствьє> kingdom -- the kingdoms
• мира -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <миръ> world; peace -- of the world
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• цлавѫ -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <цлава> glory -- the glory
• єго -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <*и> he -- of them

і глагола ємѹ вьсѣ си дамь ти аштє падъ поклониши ми сѧ |

• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• глагола -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <глаголати, -л҄ѭ, -л҄ѥши> say, speak -- saith
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- unto him
• вьсѣ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <вьсь> all, every; whole -- all
• си -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ць> this -- these things
• дамь -- verb; 1st person singular present of <дати, дамь, даси> give -- will I give
• ти -- pronoun; dative singular of <тъі> you, thou -- thee
• аштє -- particle; <аштє> if, whether -- if
• падъ -- verb; past active participle; nominative singular masculine of <пасти, падѫ, падєши> fall -- (thou wilt) fall
• поклониши -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <поклонити, -н҄ѭ, -ниши> bow, incline -- (and) worship
• ми -- pronoun; dative singular of <азъ> I -- me
• сѧ -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular of <сєбє> self -- ...

тогда глагола ємѹ иисѹсъ отиди диѣвол҄є | пишєтъ бо господю богѹ своємѹ поклониши сѧ і томѹ єдиномѹ послѹжиши |

• тогда -- adverb; <тогда> then -- then
• глагола -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <глаголати, -л҄ѭ, -л҄ѥши> say, speak -- saith
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- unto him
• иисѹсъ -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Иисѹсъ> Jesus -- Jesus
• отиди -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <отити, -идѫ, -идєши> go out, depart -- get thee hence
• диѣвол҄є -- noun, masculine; vocative singular of <дьѣволъ> devil -- Satan
• пишєтъ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <пьсати, пьшѫ, пьшєши> write -- it is written
• бо -- conjunction; <бо> for -- for
• господю -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <господь> lord, master -- the Lord
• богѹ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <богъ> god -- God
• своємѹ -- reflexive adjective; dative singular masculine of <свои, своє, своја> own, one's own -- thy
• поклониши -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <поклонити, -н҄ѭ, -ниши> bow, incline -- thou shalt worship
• сѧ -- reflexive pronoun; accusative singular of <сєбє> self -- ...
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• томѹ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular masculine of <тъ> that, that one -- him
• єдиномѹ -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <єдинъ> one, only -- only
• послѹжиши -- verb; 2nd person singular present of <послѹжити, -жѫ, -жиши> serve -- shalt thou serve

тогда остави єго диѣволъ і сє аћєли пристѫпишѧ і слѹжаахѫ ємѹ |

• тогда -- adverb; <тогда> then -- then
• остави -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <оставити, -вл҄ѭ, -виши> let, leave, neglect, forget -- leaveth
• єго -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <*и> he -- him
• диѣволъ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <дьѣволъ> devil -- the devil
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• сє -- interjection; <сє> lo, behold -- behold
• аћєли -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <аггєлъ> angel -- angels
• пристѫпишѧ -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <пристѫпити, -пл҄ѭ, -пиши> come up to, step up -- came
• і -- conjunction; <и> and -- and
• слѹжаахѫ -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <слѹжити, -жѫ, -жиши> minister (to), serve -- ministered
• ємѹ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <*и> he -- unto him

Lesson Text

тогда иисѹсъ възвєдєнъ бъістъ дѹхомь въ пѹстъін҄ѭ іскѹсити сѧ отъ нєприѣзни | і пошть сѧ дьниі к і ноштиі к послѣдь възлака | і пристѫпи къ н҄ємѹ диѣволъ іскѹшаѧ и і рєчє аштє съінъ єси божіи рьци да камєниє сє хлѣби бѫдѫтъ | онъ жє отъвѣштавъ рєчє пишєтъ нє о хлѣбѣ єдиномь поживєтъ чловѣкъ нъ о всємь глаголѣ ісходѧштиімь іѕ ѹстъ божіи | тогда поѧтъ и диѣволъ вь свѧтъі градъ і постави і на крилѣ црък҄бьнѣємь | і глагола ємѹ аштє съінъ єси божьи пѹсти сєбє долѹ | пишєтъ бо ѣко аћєломъ своимъ заповѣстъ о тєбѣ і на рѫкахъ възъмѫтъ тѧ да нє когда прѣтъкнєши о камєнь ногѫ своѭ | рєчє жє ємѹ иисѹсъ пакъі пишєтъ нє іскѹсиши господа бога своєго | пакъі поѣтъ єго нєприѣзнь на горѫ въісокѫ ѕѣло і показа ємѹ вьсѣ цѣсарьстбиѣ мира і цлавѫ єго | і глагола ємѹ вьсѣ си дамь ти аштє падъ поклониши ми сѧ | тогда глагола ємѹ иисѹсъ отиди диѣвол҄є | пишєтъ бо господю богѹ своємѹ поклониши сѧ і томѹ єдиномѹ послѹжиши | тогда остави єго диѣволъ і сє аћєли пристѫпишѧ і слѹжаахѫ ємѹ |

Translation

(Matthew 4:1) Then was Jesus led up of the spirit into the wilderness to be tempted of the devil. (2) And when he had fasted forty days and forty nights, he was afterward an hungered. (3) And when the tempter came to him, he said, If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. (4) But he answered and said, It is written, Man shall not live by bread alone, but by every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. (5) Then the devil taketh him up into the holy city, and setteth him on a pinnacle of the temple, (6) And saith unto him, If thou be the Son of God, cast thyself down: for it is written, He shall give his angels charge concerning thee: and in their hands shall they bear thee up, lest at any time thou dash thy foot against a stone. (7) Jesus said unto him, It is written again, Thou shalt not tempt the Lord thy God. (8) Again the devil taketh him up into an exceeding high mountain, and sheweth him all the kingdoms of the world, and the glory of them; (9) And saith unto him, All these things will I give thee, if thou wilt fall down and worship me. (10) Then saith Jesus unto him, Get thee hence, Satan: for it is written, Thou shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou serve. (11) Then the devil leaveth him, and, behold, angels came and ministered unto him.

Grammar

21. Further Consonant Stem Nouns

Section 16 of Lesson 4 discussed v- and n-stem nouns. There are three other types of consonant stems: s, nt, r. These all share the characteristic genitive ending -є. As with the other consonant stem nouns, the endings of the i-declension often replace these endings, and in the later stages of OCS the i-declension replaces the e-declension.

21.1. s-Stem Nouns

All s-stem nouns are neuter, with the N/A/V sg. ending -о. Because this ending coincides with o-stem neuters, the two declensions are confused. Many nouns display forms from both declensions. In the remaining oblique cases of the s-stem declension, the affix -єс- joins root to ending. слово 'word' illustrates the declension.

Jers in strong position may be promoted to full vowels, so that one finds alternate forms I sg. словєсємь, D pl. словєсємъ, L pl. словєсєхъ. Conflation with the i-declension produces the forms G L sg. словєси. The forms D sg. словѹ and N/A/V pl. слова result from interference with the o-stem neuters.

The nouns око 'eye' and ѹхо 'ear' are members of this declension. The -є- of the affix -єс- causes the changes к > ч and х > ш of the root-final consonants: G sg. очєсє, ѹшєсє. Plural forms are rare, and they more often form the dual according to the i-declension.

21.2. nt-Stem Nouns

The nt-stem nouns are diminutives referring to living beings. All the nouns of this type are neuter. The affix intervening between root and ending is -ѧт < -ent-, which in the nominative simplifies to -ѧ. The paradigm for отрочѧ 'child' is given below. Many of the forms, however, are not attested.

Some nouns ending in -ть and properly belonging to the i-declension show case endings from this declension: дєсѧть 'ten' has L sg. дєсѧтє, N pl. дєсѧтє, G pl. дєсѧтъ, I pl. дєсѧтъі.

21.3. r-Stem Nouns

Only two feminine nouns belong to the r-stem declension: мати 'mother' and дъшти 'daughter'. мати will illustrate the declension.

The form матєрє also appears for the A sg. The I sg. матєрьѭ shows conflation with the i-declension. The G sg. матєри is also found.

The numeral чєтъірє is a member of this declension:

One finds the alternate G pl. form чєтъірь.

22. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

The comparative adjective has both short and long forms. The short form derives from the earlier suffix *-jĭs, cf. Lat. mag-is. The long from adds a preceding -ě-, resulting in *-ějĭs. The ĭ, which derived from an original short-i, subjects the s in both forms to the RUKI law, yielding -jĭš and -ějĭš.

The nominative singular masculine form loses the final š, leaving -jĭ and -ějĭ. The long form -ějĭ is written -ѣи in the Cyrillic script. The short form nominative, however, is used only as a definite (long-form) adjective, where the pronoun jĭ is added. This results in the ending -jĭjĭ, which is written -ии, with palatalization of the preceding consonant resulting from the jot.

22.1. Short Form of the Comparative

The short form adds the suffix -jĭš to the base of the word, to which are appended the usual adjective endings. The nominative adds -jĭjĭ. In all forms the presence of the -j- results in palatalization of the preceding consonant. Many adjectives ending in -ьк-, -ък-, or -ок- form the comparative by means of the short form suffix, before which the -ьк-, -ък-, or -ок- are dropped. For example, въісокъ 'high' uses the comparative base въіш- 'higher'. The paradigm is as follows.

22.2. Long Form of the Comparative

The long form adds the suffix -ějĭš- to the word base. The ě here derives from an original long-e, so that a preceding velar consonant is palatalized according to the rules of First Palatalization. In this situation the suffix -ějĭš- is then replaced by -ajĭš-. For example, стар-ъ 'old' forms the comparative star-ějĭš-, but ѹбог-ъ 'poor' forms ubož-ajĭš- < *ubož-ějiš- < *aubag-e:-jĭš-. The comparative of старъ 'old' illustrates the declension.

22.3. Comparatives without Positive Bases

Several comparatives derive from stems whose positive form had fallen into disuse by the time of the OCS documents. The corresponding positive adjective forms were taken from other stems. The following are common examples.

22.4. The Superlative

The superlative of adverbs is formed by adding the prefix нан- to the comparative, e.g. пакъі 'again', пачє 'more', нанпачє 'the most'. The superlative of adjectives is most often expressed by means of the comparative in conjunction with a genitive denoting the point of reference for the comparison: вьсѣхъ бол҄ии 'biggest of all'. An absolute superlative is formed by use of the adverb ѕєло 'very' with the positive degree of the adjective, or by means of the prefix прѣ- added to the positive: свѧтъ 'holy', прѣсвѧтъ 'holiest'.

23. Relatives, Interrogatives, and Indefinites

23.1. The Relative Pronoun

The relative pronoun is formed by appending the enclitic жє 'but, and' to the forms of the third person pronoun *и 'he'. The pronoun is declined, while the enclitic remains invariable. In contrast to the third person pronoun, the nominative forms of the relative pronoun do occur.

As with the third person pronoun, a prothetic n- occurs when used with prepositions, e.g. въ н҄ьжє 'in which'.

23.2. The Interrogative Pronoun and Adjective

The interrogative pronoun is declined only in the singular. The masculine and feminine forms are the same, while the neuter has a separate stem.

къто means 'who?', referring to masculine or feminine substantives; чьто means 'what?'. чьто has variant forms for some of the oblique cases: G чєсого, чьсо, чьсого; D чьсомѹ, чємѹ, L чєсомь.

The interrogative adjective is къіи, коѥ, каја 'which?, what sort of?'. The declension is given below.

There are variant forms: N sg. masc. къі, G sg. fem. коѩ, D sg. fem. кои, A sg. fem. коѭ, I sg. fem. коѭ, and G pl. коихъ.

The possessive interrogative adjective чии, чија, чиѥ 'whose' follows the same declension.

23.3. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives

In addition to the meaning 'who?, what?', the pronouns къто, чьто may have the indefinite meanings 'anybody, anything', respectively.

The prefix нѣ- imparts indefinite meaning to the word to which it is attached. къто 'who?' becomes нѣкъто 'someone', чьто 'what?' becomes нѣчьто 'something'. Similarly, the prefix ни- imparts a negative meaning: никъто 'no one', ничьто 'no thing'. These prefixes were still flexible in OCS, so that prepositions may come between prefix and base word: нѣ ѹ кого 'with someone', ни о комьжє нєродиши 'you care for no one'.

24. Compound Tense Formation

Past tenses other than the imperfect and aorist were formed by means of periphrastic constructions. These were based on the l-participle used in conjunction with a corresponding tense of 'to be'. The future was also at times expressed with constructions using an auxiliary verb.

24.1. The Perfect

The IE perfect formation survives in OCS only in the form вѣдѣ 'I know' < *voidai, corresponding to Lat. vidi, Grk. (w)oida, Skt. veda. The perfect of other verbs is formed in OCS by using the corresponding l-participle of the verb plus the present tense of 'to be', that is, finite forms built from the stem єс-. The participle takes its gender and number from the subject. For example, the perfect of нєсти, -сѫ, -сєши 'carry' is as follows.

The exact difference between the OCS perfect and aorist is still a matter of scholarly debate. Many state that the perfect in OCS denotes a past action whose result is still relevant in the present. This is distinct from the aorist, which denotes a past action without regard to the time of the speaker. The oft-quoted example in support of this distinction comes from the story of Jairus' daughter in Mark 5:22-43. The messengers tell Jairus дъшти твоѣ ѹмрѣтъ 'your daughter has died', where ѹмрѣтъ is the third singular aorist form. However Jesus later says нѣстъ ѹмръла нъ съпитъ 'she is not dead, but sleeps', where нѣстъ (= нє ѥстъ) ѹмръла is the perfect, and съпитъ is present. One must be cautious, however, in asserting that such a distinction was felt in OCS, because here both the aorist ѹмрѣтъ and the perfect (ѥстъ) ѹмръла translate the Greek aorist apethanen. The fact that the OCS perfect often translates the Greek aorist, together with the fact that later Slavic languages use the l-participle construction for the simple past, suggest that the OCS perfect may have expressed the past generally and without reference to the present time of the speaker.

24.2. The Pluperfect

The pluperfect denotes an action which occurred prior to a point of time in the past. It is formed analogously to the perfect, replacing the present tense of the auxiliary 'be' with its imperfect or aorist form. нєсти, -сѫ, -сєши 'carry' serves as an example.

The auxiliary 'be' is also found in the perfect: нєслъ бъілъ ѥсмь 'I had carried'.

24.3. The Future

Future time was usually expressed using the present tense form of the verb. Another construction existed, however, which involved the infinitive used in conjunction with a finite form of one of the verbs въчѧти, начѧти 'to begin', имѣти 'to have', хотѣти 'to will'. For example, one finds глаголати иматъ 'he will speak', нєнавидѣти сѧ начьнѫтъ 'they will despise one another'.

A periphrastic future construction is occasionally formed by using the present participle with a form of бъіти, бѫдѫ, бѫдєши 'be, become'. For example the verb мльчати, -чѫ, -чиши 'be silent' forms a future бѫдєши мльчѧ 'you will be silent'; and жити, живѫ, живєши 'live' forms the future живъ бѫдєши 'you will live'.

24.4. The Future Perfect

The present tense also fills the function of the future perfect. There is, however, a periphrastic formation of the future perfect given by the l-participle in conjunction with a finite form of бъіти, бѫдѫ, бѫдєши 'be'. For example, читати, -аѭ, -аѥши 'read' forms a future perfect читалъ бѫдѫ 'I will have read'; the future perfect of родити, -ждѫ, -диши 'give birth' is found in то въскѫѭ сѧ и родили бѫдємъ 'then for what shall we be born?'

25. The Nominative and Vocative Cases

The nominative is the case of the subject and of adjectives or substantives predicated to the subject. Thus in бѣашєтє бо ръібарја 'for they two were fishermen', the predicate ръібарја is in the nominative. The nominative is also used abosolutely for naming. This includes titles such as євангєлиє отъ лѹкъі 'the Gospel according to Luke', as well as predicates with verbs of naming: сь вєлии нарєчєтъ сѧ 'he will be called great', where вєлии 'great' is nominative in agreement with the subject.

The vocative is the case used for direct address. For example, дѹшє 'soul!' is vocative in the phrase рєкѫ дѹши моєи дѹшє 'I will say to my soul, Soul!...'. Distinct forms for the vocative are found only in the singular of masculine and feminine nouns. In other numbers the form is the same as the nominative. The nominative is in fact often found in instances where a distinct vocative form would be expected.