Old French Online
Lesson 2
Brigitte L.M. Bauer and Jonathan Slocum
When Charlemagne's army reaches France and the troops prepare themselves mentally to see their loved ones again, the rearguard under the command of Roland is attacked at Roncevaux. Despite the wise and urgent advice of his friend Oliver, Roland in his vanity refuses at first to blow the horn for military support. Only when Roland sees that many of his troops have died does he decide to call for Charlemagne's help. The physical effort of blowing the horn inflicts a fatal injury, and as a result Roland dies.
The Chanson describes in detail the last moments of Roland's life and his passing. When Charlemagne hears the signal, he returns to Spain to find that most of his men there have been killed, including Oliver and Roland. He prepares his revenge, which leads to the eventual victory of Christianity: the traitor is brought to justice, and Sarragossa eventually is taken.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The fragments below describe the most dramatic moments of the Chanson de Roland: Roland's blowing the horn, his injury, and his death. They also describe Charlemagne's arrival at the scene of the battle, and his emotions at seeing the disastrous effects of the attack (lines 1753-1758, 1785-1795, 2355-2365, 2396-2402, and 2412-2416).
The reader will notice that the fragments tend to be repetitive, which may be explained by the oral tradition that the Chanson de Geste was part of. The repetitive nature of the text also underscores the strong emotions that the events trigger in the characters. From a linguistic perspective, the reader will also notice that in many instances the case markers are not used, or are used incorrectly, illustrating the gradual disappearance of the case system.
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche,
Empeint le ben, par grant vertut le sunet.
- Rollant
-- proper name; nominative singular<Rollant> Roland-- Roland - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- has - mis
-- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine<metre, mectre, mettre> put-- put - l'olifan
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<olifant> ivory horn-- the horn - a
-- preposition;<a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on-- at - sa
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine<son> his-- his - buche
-- noun; oblique singular<bouche, buche> mouth-- mouth - empeint
-- verb; third person singular present<empeindre> blow, protrude-- he places - le
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he-- it - ben
-- adverb;<bien> well, many, much, really-- solidly - par
-- preposition;<par> through, by, by reason of-- with - grant
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<grant> great, large, tall-- great - vertut
-- noun; oblique singular<vertu> might, power, strength-- force - le
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he-- it - sunet
-- verb; third person singular present<suner, soner> sound, utter-- he blows
Halt sunt li pui e la voiz est mult lunge,
Granz .XXX. liwes l'oïrent il respundre.
- halt
-- adjective; nominative plural masculine<alt, aut, halt> high, strong, important-- high - sunt
-- verb; third person plural present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- are - li
-- definite article; nominative plural masculine<li> the-- the - pui
-- noun; nominative plural<pui> mountain, hill-- mountains - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - la
-- definite article; nominative singular feminine<li> the-- the - voiz
-- noun; nominative singular<vois, voiz> noise, word, voice-- sound - est
-- verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- carries - mult
-- adverb, adjective;<molt, mult, mout> many, much, very-- very - lunge
-- adjective; nominative singular feminine<lonc, long, loing> long, far-- far - granz
-- adjective; oblique plural feminine<grant> great, large, tall-- long - .XXX.
-- number;<.XXX.> thirty-- thirty # in Old French, numbers were preceded and followed by a dot - liwes
-- noun; oblique plural<liue, live> mile-- miles away - l'oïrent
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person plural preterite<oir, odir> hear-- they heard... - il
-- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine<il> he-- it - respundre
-- verb; infinitive<respondre> answer-- resonate
Karles l'oït e ses cumpaignes tutes.
Ço dist li reis: "Bataille funt nostre hume!"
- Karles
-- proper name; nominative singular<Charles> Charles, Charlemagne-- Charles - l'oït
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person singular preterite<oir, odir> hear-- heard it - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - ses
-- possessive; third person singular nominative plural feminine<son> his-- his - cumpaignes
-- noun; nominative plural<compaigne> troops-- troops - tutes
-- adjective; nominative plural feminine<tot> all, every, completely-- all - ço
-- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter<ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it-- these words - dist
-- verb; third person singular preterite<dire> say, tell-- spoke - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - reis
-- noun; nominative singular<roi> king-- king - bataille
-- noun; oblique singular<bataille> battle-- battle - funt
-- verb; third person plural present<faire> make-- fight - nostre
-- possessive; first person plural nominative plural masculine<nostre> our-- our - hume
-- noun; nominative plural<home, ome> man-- troops
Li quens Rollant ad la buche sanglente.
De sun cervel rumput en est li temples.
- li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- ... - quens
-- noun; nominative singular<conte> count-- count - Rollant
-- proper name; nominative singular<Rollant> Roland-- Roland - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- has - la
-- definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the-- his - buche
-- noun; oblique singular<bouche, buche> mouth-- mouth - sanglente
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<sanglent> bloody-- full of blood - de
-- preposition;<de> of, from-- of - sun
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular masculine<son> his-- his - cervel
-- noun; oblique singular<cervel> brains-- brains - rumput
-- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine<rompre> break, burst-- burst open - en
-- pronoun; inanimate<en> of it-- ... - est
-- verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- has - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - temples
-- noun; nominative singular<temple> temple, forehead-- temple
L'olifan sunet a dulor e a peine.
Karles l'oït e ses Franceis l'entendent.
- l'olifan
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<olifant> ivory horn-- the horn - sunet
-- verb; third person singular present<suner, soner> sound, utter-- he blows - a
-- preposition;<a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on-- in - dulor
-- noun; oblique singular<dolor> pain, suffering-- suffering - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - a
-- preposition;<a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on-- in - peine
-- noun; oblique singular<peine, paine> torment, suffering-- pain - Karles
-- proper name; nominative singular<Charles> Charles, Charlemagne-- Charles - l'oït
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person singular preterite<oir, odir> hear-- heard him - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - ses
-- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine<son> his-- his - Franceis
-- proper name; nominative plural<Franceis> free, noble, subject of the king of France-- subjects - l'entendent
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person plural present<entendre> try, pay attention, understand, hear-- hear him
Ço dist li reis: "Cel corn ad lunge aleine!"
- ço
-- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter<ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it-- these words - dist
-- verb; third person singular preterite<dire> say, tell-- spoke - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - reis
-- noun; nominative singular<roi> king-- king - cel
-- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine<cil> that-- that - corn
-- noun; nominative singular<corn, cor> horn-- horn - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- has - lunge
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<lonc, long, loing> long, far-- long - aleine
-- noun; oblique singular<aleine, alaine> blast, breath-- a breath
Respont dux Neimes: "Baron i fait la peine!
Bataille i ad, par le men escïentre.
Cil l'at traït ki vos en roevet feindre.
- respont
-- verb; third person singular present<respondre> answer-- answers - dux
-- noun; nominative singular<duc> duke-- duke - Neimes
-- proper name; nominative singular<Neimes> Naimes-- Naimes - baron
-- noun; nominative singular<baron> brave warrior, brave knight-- a brave knight - i
-- particle;<i> there-- there - fait la peine
-- verb; third person singular present<faire> make + definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<peine, paine> torment, suffering-- is in distress - bataille
-- noun; oblique singular<bataille> battle-- battle - i
-- particle;<i> there-- ... - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- is - par le men escïentre
-- preposition;<par> through, by, by reason of + definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the + possessive; first person singular oblique singular masculine<mon> my + noun; oblique singular<escïent> knowledge-- to my knowledge - cil
-- demonstrative; nominative singular masculine<cil> that-- he who - l'at
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- has... him... - traït
-- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine<trair> betray-- betrayed - ki
-- relative pronoun; subject<qui> who-- who - vos
-- personal pronoun; second person plural direct object<vos> you-- you - en
-- pronoun; inanimate<en> of it-- ... - roevet
-- verb; third person singular present<rover> ask, call upon, order-- orders - feindre
-- verb; infinitive<feindre> do nothing, shy away-- to do nothing
Adubez vos, si criez vostre enseigne,
Si sucurez vostre maisnee gente:
Asez oez que Rollant se dementet!"
- adubez vos
-- verb; second person plural imperative<adober> arm oneself + personal pronoun; second person plural direct object<vos> you-- arm yourself - si
-- conjunction;<si> and, and thus-- and - criez
-- verb; second person plural imperative<crier> shout-- shout - vostre
-- possessive; second person plural oblique singular feminine<vostre> your-- your - enseigne
-- noun; oblique singular<enseigne> war cry-- war cry - si
-- conjunction;<si> and, and thus-- and - sucurez
-- verb; second person plural imperative<secorer> go to the help of-- go to the help of - vostre
-- possessive; second person plural oblique singular feminine<vostre> your-- your - maisnee
-- noun; oblique singular<maisniee, maisnie> household, army-- army - gente
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<gent> fair, handsome, beautiful-- fair - asez
-- adverb;<asez, assés> many, much, very well-- very well - oez
-- verb; second person plural present<oir, odir> hear-- you hear - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- that - Rollant
-- proper name; nominative singular<Rollant> Roland-- Roland - se dementet
-- verb; third person singular present<se dementer> lament-- is lamenting
Ço sent Rollant que la mort le tresprent,
Devers la teste sur le quer li descent.
- ço
-- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter<ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it-- ... - sent
-- verb; third person singular present<sentir> smell, feel-- feels - Rollant
-- proper name; nominative singular<Rollant> Roland-- Roland - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- that - la
-- definite article; nominative singular feminine<li> the-- ... - mort
-- noun; nominative singular<mort> death-- death - le
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he-- him - tresprent
-- verb; third person singular present<tresprendre> overcome completely-- overcomes completely - devers
-- preposition;<devers, de vers> in the direction of, from the direction of-- from - la
-- definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the-- his - teste
-- noun; oblique singular<teste> head-- head - sur
-- preposition;<seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above-- to - le
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the-- his - quer
-- noun; oblique singular<cuer, coer, cor> heart-- heart - li
-- personal pronoun; third person singular indirect object masculine<il> he-- ... - descent
-- verb; third person singular present<descendre> descend, dismount-- it descends
Desuz un pin i est alet curant,
Sur l'erbe verte s'i est culchet adenz,
Desuz lui met s'espee e l'olifan,
Turnat sa teste vers la paiene gent:
- desuz
-- preposition;<desos, desous> under-- under - un
-- indefinite article; oblique singular masculine<un> a-- a - pin
-- noun; oblique singular<pin> pine tree-- pine tree - i
-- particle;<i> there-- ... - est
-- verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- he has - alet
-- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine<aler> go-- gone - curant
-- verb; participle present nominative singular masculine<corre> run-- running - sur
-- preposition;<seur, soure, sur, sor> on, over, to, above-- on top of - l'erbe
-- definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<erbre> grass-- the grass - verte
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<vert> green-- green - s'i est culchet
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object<se> he + particle;<i> there + verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be + verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine<couchier> lie down-- there he has lain down - adenz
-- adverb;<adenz> face downwards-- face downwards - desuz
-- preposition;<desos, desous> under-- under - lui
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he-- him - met
-- verb; third person singular present<metre, mectre, mettre> put-- he puts - s'espee
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine<son> his + noun; oblique singular<espee> sword-- his sword - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - l'olifan
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<olifant> ivory horn-- the horn - turnat
-- verb; third person singular preterite<torner> turn, return-- he turned - sa
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine<son> his-- his - teste
-- noun; oblique singular<teste> head-- head - vers
-- preposition;<vers> towards-- towards - la
-- definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the-- the - paiene
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<paien> pagan, heathen-- pagan - gent
-- noun; oblique singular<gent> race, people-- people
Pur ço l'ad fait que il voelt veirement
Que Carles diet e trestute sa gent,
Li gentilz quens, qu'il fut mort cunquerant.
- pur
-- preposition;<por> for-- for - ço
-- demonstrative; oblique singular neuter<ço, ceo, ce, ceu> this, that, it-- the reason - l'ad
-- personal pronoun; third person singular direct object masculine<il> he + verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- he has... this - fait
-- verb; perfective participle oblique singular masculine<faire> make-- done - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- that - il
-- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine<il> he-- he - voelt
-- verb; third person singular present<voloir> want-- wants - veirement
-- adverb;<voirement> really-- really - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- that - Carles
-- proper name; nominative singular<Charles> Charles, Charlemagne-- Charles - diet
-- verb; third person singular subjunctive present<dire> say, tell-- say - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- and - trestute
-- reinforcing element;<tres> ... + adjective; nominative singular feminine<tot> all, every, completely-- entire - sa
-- possessive; third person singular nominative singular feminine<son> his-- his - gent
-- noun; nominative singular<gent> race, people-- people - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - gentilz
-- adjective; nominative singular masculine<gentil> noble, brave-- brave - quens
-- noun; nominative singular<conte> count-- count - qu'il
-- conjunction;<que> that + personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine<il> he-- that he - fut
-- verb; third person singular preterite<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- has - mort
-- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine<morir> kill, die-- died - cunquerant
-- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine<conquerre, cunquerre> conquer, capture-- as a conqueror
Cleimet sa culpe e menut e suvent,
Pur ses pecchez Deu en puroffrid lo guant. AOI
- cleimet
-- verb; third person singular present<clamer> call, proclaim, confess-- he confesses aloud - sa
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine<son> his-- his - culpe
-- noun; oblique singular<colpe, corpe, cope> sin, mistake-- sins - e
-- conjunction;<e, et, ed> and-- ... - menut e suvent
-- adverb;<menu, menut> quickly + conjunction;<e, et, ed> and + adverb;<sovent> frequently, often-- tapping his chest quickly and frequently - pur
-- preposition;<por> for-- for - ses
-- possessive; third person singular oblique plural masculine<son> his-- his - pecchez
-- noun; oblique plural<pechié> sin, mistake-- sins - Deu
-- proper name; oblique singular<Dieu, Deu> God-- to God - en
-- pronoun; inanimate<en> of it-- ... - puroffrid
-- verb; third person singular preterite<porofrir> present-- offered - lo
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the-- his - guant
-- noun; oblique singular<gant> glove-- glove - AOI
-- interjection;<AOI> ...-- ... # unknown element, possibly a war cry, typical of the Chanson de Roland
Morz est Rollant, Deus en ad l'anme es cels.
Li emperere en Rencesvals parvient.
- morz
-- verb; perfective participle nominative singular masculine<morir> kill, die-- died - est
-- verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- has - Rollant
-- proper name; nominative singular<Rollant> Roland-- Roland - Deus
-- proper name; nominative singular<Dieu, Deu> God-- God - en
-- pronoun; inanimate<en> of it-- ... - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- has - l'anme
-- definite article; oblique singular feminine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<anme, alme, arme, ame> soul, somebody-- his soul - es
-- preposition;<en> in, into, on, on top of + definite article; oblique plural masculine<li> the-- in... - cels
-- noun; oblique plural<ciel> heaven-- heaven - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - emperere
-- noun; nominative singular<empereor> emperor-- emperor - en
-- preposition;<en> in, into, on, on top of-- in - Rencesvals
-- proper name; oblique singular<Rencesvals> Roncevaux-- Roncevaux - parvient
-- verb; third person singular present<parvenir> arrive-- arrives
Il nen i ad ne veie ne senter,
Ne voide tere, ne alne ne plein pied,
Que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien.
- il
-- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine<il> he-- ... - nen
-- negation;<ne, nen> not-- ... - i
-- particle;<i> there-- there - ad
-- verb; third person singular present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- is - ne
-- negation;<ne, ni> nor, and not-- no - veie
-- noun; oblique singular<veie> road-- road - ne
-- negation;<ne, ni> nor, and not-- nor - senter
-- noun; oblique singular<sentier> path-- path - ne
-- negation;<ne, ni> nor, and not-- nor - voide
-- adjective; oblique singular feminine<vuit, vuide> empty-- empty - tere
-- noun; oblique singular<terre> land, country, earth-- any piece of ground - ne
-- negation;<ne, ni> nor, and not-- nor - alne
-- noun; oblique singular<alne> ell-- any ell - ne
-- negation;<ne, ni> nor, and not-- or - plein
-- adjective; oblique singular masculine<plein, plain> full-- full - pied
-- noun; oblique singular<pié> foot-- foot - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- where - il
-- personal pronoun; third person singular nominative masculine<il> he-- ... - n'i
-- negation;<ne, nen> not + particle;<i> there-- there... no - ait
-- verb; third person singular subjunctive present<avoir, aveir> have, be-- is - o
-- conjunction;<o, u> or-- ... - Franceis
-- proper name; oblique singular<Franceis> free, noble, subject of the king of France-- Frenchman - o
-- conjunction;<o, u> or-- or - paien
-- noun; oblique singular<paien, pagien> pagan, heathen-- heathen
Carles escriet: "U estes vos, bels niés?"
...
- Carles
-- proper name; nominative singular<Charles> Charles, Charlemagne-- Charles - escriet
-- verb; third person singular present<escrier> cry out, shout-- cries out - u
-- interrogative adverb;<ou> where-- where - estes
-- verb; second person plural present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- are - vos
-- personal pronoun; second person plural nominative<vos> you-- you - bels
-- adjective; nominative singular masculine<bel> dear, beloved, handsome-- beloved - niés
-- noun; nominative singular<nevot, neveu> grandson, nephew-- my nephew
"Deus! dist li reis, tant me pois esmaier
Que jo ne fui a l'estur cumencer!"
- Deus
-- proper name; nominative singular<Dieu, Deu> God-- God - dist
-- verb; third person singular preterite<dire> say, tell-- said - li
-- definite article; nominative singular masculine<li> the-- the - reis
-- noun; nominative singular<roi> king-- king - tant
-- adverb;<tant> so, so much-- so much - me
-- personal pronoun; first person singular direct object<jo, jou, jeu> I-- myself - pois
-- verb; first person singular present<pooir, poeir, poier> can, be able-- I can - esmaier
-- verb; infinitive<esmaier> be dismayed-- torment - que
-- conjunction;<que> that-- for - jo
-- personal pronoun; first person singular nominative<jo, jou, jeu> I-- ... - ne
-- negation;<ne, nen> not-- not - fui
-- verb; first person singular preterite<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- having been - a
-- preposition;<a, ad> to, up to, against, in, on-- at - l'estur
-- definite article; oblique singular masculine<li> the + noun; oblique singular<estor, estorm> noise, tumult, battle-- of the battle - cumencer
-- verb; infinitive<comencier> begin, start-- the beginning
Tiret sa barbe cum hom ki est iret;
Plurent des oilz si baron chevaler;
Encontre tere se pasment .XX. millers.
- tiret
-- verb; third person singular present<tirer> pull-- he pulls - sa
-- possessive; third person singular oblique singular feminine<son> his-- his - barbe
-- noun; oblique singular<barbe> beard-- beard - cum
-- conjunction;<com, comme> as-- like - hom
-- noun; nominative singular<home, ome> man-- a man - ki
-- relative pronoun; subject<qui> who-- who - est
-- verb; third person singular present<estre, iestre, aistre> be-- is - iret
-- adjective; nominative singular masculine<iré, irié> angry, distressed, furious-- distressed - plurent
-- verb; third person plural present<plorer> cry, shed tears-- shed tears - des
-- preposition;<de> of, from + definite article; oblique plural masculine<li> the-- from their - oilz
-- noun; oblique plural<oeuil, oil> eye-- eyes - si
-- possessive; third person singular nominative plural masculine<son> his-- his - baron
-- noun; nominative plural<baron> brave warrior, brave knight-- warrior - chevaler
-- noun; nominative plural<chevalier> knight-- knights - encontre
-- preposition;<encontre> to, towards, against-- on top of - tere
-- noun; oblique singular<terre> land, country, earth-- earth - se pasment
-- verb; third person plural present<se pasmer> faint, swoon-- faint - .XX.
-- number;<.XX.> twenty-- twenty # in Old French, numbers were preceded and followed by a dot - millers
-- numeral; nominative plural<millier> thousand-- thousand men
Lesson Text
Rollant ad mis l'olifan a sa buche,
Empeint le ben, par grant vertut le sunet.
Halt sunt li pui e la voiz est mult lunge,
Granz .XXX. liwes l'oïrent il respundre.
Karles l'oït e ses cumpaignes tutes.
Ço dist li reis: "Bataille funt nostre hume!"
Li quens Rollant ad la buche sanglente.
De sun cervel rumput en est li temples.
L'olifan sunet a dulor e a peine.
Karles l'oït e ses Franceis l'entendent.
Ço dist li reis: "Cel corn ad lunge aleine!"
Respont dux Neimes: "Baron i fait la peine!
Bataille i ad, par le men escïentre.
Cil l'at traït ki vos en roevet feindre.
Adubez vos, si criez vostre enseigne,
Si sucurez vostre maisnee gente:
Asez oez que Rollant se dementet!"
Ço sent Rollant que la mort le tresprent,
Devers la teste sur le quer li descent.
Desuz un pin i est alet curant,
Sur l'erbe verte s'i est culchet adenz,
Desuz lui met s'espee e l'olifan,
Turnat sa teste vers la paiene gent:
Pur ço l'ad fait que il voelt veirement
Que Carles diet e trestute sa gent,
Li gentilz quens, qu'il fut mort cunquerant.
Cleimet sa culpe e menut e suvent,
Pur ses pecchez Deu en puroffrid lo guant. AOI
Morz est Rollant, Deus en ad l'anme es cels.
Li emperere en Rencesvals parvient.
Il nen i ad ne veie ne senter,
Ne voide tere, ne alne ne plein pied,
Que il n'i ait o Franceis o paien.
Carles escriet: "U estes vos, bels niés?"
...
"Deus! dist li reis, tant me pois esmaier
Que jo ne fui a l'estur cumencer!"
Tiret sa barbe cum hom ki est iret;
Plurent des oilz si baron chevaler;
Encontre tere se pasment .XX. millers.
Translation
Roland has put the horn at his mouth,
He places it solidly, with great force he blows it.
The mountains are high and the sound carries very far,
Thirty long miles away they heard it resonate.
Charles heard it, and all his troops.
The king spoke these words: "Our troops fight a battle!"
Count Roland has his mouth full of blood.
The temple of his brains has burst open.
He blows the horn in suffering and in pain.
Charles heard him and his subjects hear him.
The king spoke these words: "That horn has a long breath!"
Duke Naimes answers: "A brave knight is in distress!
There is a battle, to my knowledge.
He who has betrayed him, orders you to do nothing.
Arm yourself, and shout your war cry,
And go to the help of your fair army:
You hear very well that Roland is lamenting."
Roland feels that death overcomes him completely,
it descends from his head to his heart.
He has gone, running, under a pine tree,
there he has lain down on top of the green grass, face downwards,
he puts his sword and the horn under him,
he turned his head towards the pagan people:
He has done this for the reason that he really wants
that Charles and his entire people say
that he the brave count has died as a conqueror.
He confesses his sins aloud, tapping his chest quickly and frequently
For his sins he offered his glove to God.
Roland has died, God has his soul in heaven.
The emperor arrives in Roncevaux.
There is no road nor path,
nor any empty piece of ground, nor any ell or full foot,
where there is no Frenchman or heathen.
Charles cries out: "Where are you, my beloved nephew?"
...
"God!" the king said, "I can torment myself so much
for not having been there at the beginning of the battle!"
He pulls his beard like a man who is distressed;
His warrior knights shed tears from their eyes;
twenty thousand men faint on top of the earth.
Grammar
6. Case: Nominal Declension, Class III
In addition to the two declension classes discussed in Lesson 1, there is a third group of nouns in Old French, which is characterized by a varying number of syllables in the individual paradigms (the so-called imparisyllabic declension). This group of nouns traces back to the third declension in Latin (e.g. lex, legis), which included imparasyllabic nouns as well. Since the nominative singular had a number of syllables different from the other cases (e.g. La. imperator 'emperor-Nom.' vs. imperatorem 'emperor-Acc.'), the paradigm is characterized by a shift of accentuation, which affects the subsequent phonological changes. The following table presents the Latin forms and their Old French equivalents:
Nominal Declension, Latin vs. Old French
| Nom. Sg. | Nom. Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latin: | imperator 'emperor' | imperatores | ||
| Old French: | emperedre | emperedor |
| Acc./Obl. Sg. | Acc./Obl. Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latin: | imperatorem | imperatores | ||
| Old French: | emperedor | emperedors |
Nominal Declension, Class III
| Sg. | Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | emperedre 'emperor' | emperedor | ||
| chantere 'singer' | chanteor | |||
| Obl. | emperedor | emperedors | ||
| chanteor | chanteors |
Nouns included in this class are, for example: cuens, conte 'count', enfes, enfant 'child', niés, nevo 'nephew', sire, seignor 'lord', traïtre, traïtor 'traitor', and others. These nouns can be divided in four groups; three of them are:
- masculine nouns referring to agents (verb stem + a suffix -eor or (i)ere), for example: chantere, chanteor 'singer', derived from the verb chanter (stem: chant-) 'sing' or buvere, buveor 'drinker' from the verb bevre (stem: buv-) 'drink';
- masculine nouns, often of Germanic origin with a suffix -on for cases other than the nominative. These nouns are primarily nouns of persons or proper names. Examples include: ber, baron 'baron', lerre, larron 'thief', compaing, compaignon 'companion', Charles, Charlon 'Charles', Guenes, Ganelon 'Ganelon', and others;
- feminine nouns that alternate the nominative singular with the other forms in -ain.
Nominal Declension, Feminine Nouns in -ain
| Sg. | Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | la none 'the nun' | les nonains | ||
| Obl. | la nonain | les nonains |
Examples include ante, antain 'aunt', pute, putain 'prostitute', niece, nieçain, 'niece', and others that are less frequent.
The fourth group in Class III consists of a variety of nouns, such as hom, home 'man', enfes, enfant 'child', sire, seignor 'lord'. These are all masculine nouns with the exception of suer, seror 'sister'.
Like the other declensional groups (Lesson 1), the case distinction gradually disappeared: the masculine nominative singular ending (-s) spread to nouns that originally did not have it, as sire > sires (which gives the following paradigm: li sires, le seigneur, li seigneur, les seigneurs). Moreover, one of the two forms, the nominative or oblique, came to be generalized to the rest of the paradigm; most commonly it was the oblique form that generalized: e.g. li gars vs. le garçon 'boy' became li garçons vs. le garçon (plural: li garçon and les garçons). This process came to completion in the Middle French period, when the oblique form eventually was the only form left. In the 13th century, a limited number of (animate) nouns developed double paradigms, each based on the nominative vs. oblique stem, cf:
Nominal Declension, Development of sire
| Sg. | Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | li sire | li sire | ||
| Obl. | le sire | les sires |
Nominal Declension, Development of seigneur
| Sg. | Pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom. | li seigneurs | li seigneur | ||
| Obl. | le seigneur | les seigneurs |
7. Verb Conjugation: Present and Past
The verb in Old French expresses person, number, tense, mood, and to some extent aspect. Verb forms typically do not have an obligatory subject personal pronoun, so chant means 'I sing'. Cf. also: chante 'he sings' vs. li reis chante 'the king sings'. A verbal paradigm typically has three forms in the singular (1st, 2nd, and 3rd person) and three in the plural. The majority of the forms are "synthetic," which means that a unique form expresses the entire verbal concept, e.g. fenissons 'end-Present-we'.
Several forms are "analytic," which means that an auxiliary is combined with the main verb, generally the perfective participle or an infinitive. Compare: chant 'I sing' vs. ai chanté 'I have sung'.
On the basis of the ending of the infinitive, we distinguish four conjugations in Old French: verbs in -er, -ir, -oir, and in -re. Of these the verbs in -er and most verbs in -ir are so-called regular verbs. It is accurate to say that as a rule of thumb the verbs in -er, which are most frequent, trace back to the first conjugation verbs in Latin (e.g. Latin cantare survives as chanter in Old French).
There are two types of verb in -ir: those that include an infix -iss- in some forms, and those that do not. The infix traces back to the Latin infix -isc-, an inchoative marker, which conveys the notion of 'to begin', as in tepesco 'I become warm', based on tepeo 'I am warm'. Reflecting this etymological origin, many verbs in -ir are formed on adjectives (OFr. adj. sage 'wise' > v. assagir 'become wise', adj. riche 'rich' > v. enrichir 'become rich'); others are in origin Germanic verbs (e.g. rôtir 'roast', choisir 'choose').
Verbs in -oir go back to second conjugation verbs in -ere in Latin (e.g. Latin manere 'stay' vs. OFr. manoir 'stay'). Verbs in -re trace back to the Latin verbs in -re.
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -er, Present Indicative (chanter)
| Present | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | - | chant 'I sing' | -ons | chantons | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -es | chantes | -ez | chantez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -e | chante(t) | -ent | chantent |
In some verbs, the accent is on the verb ending throughout the entire paradigm; in others, it shifts to the verb stem for certain forms (1st sg., 2nd sg. and 3rd sg. and pl. present indicative and present subjunctive, and 2nd sg. imperative). This accounts for an alternation pattern, as in the verb amer:
amer 'love'
| Present | Sg. | Pl. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | aim 'I love' | amons | ||
| 2nd pers. | aimes | amez | ||
| 3rd pers. | aime(t) | aiment |
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -ir with infix
| Present | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -is | fenis 'I end' | -issons | fenissons | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -is | fenis | -iss(i)ez | feniss(i)ez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -it | fenist | -issent | fenissent |
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -ir without infix
| Present | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | - | part 'I leave' | -ons | partons | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -s | parz | -ez | partez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -t | part | -ent | partent |
Verbal Conjugation, Verbs in -re
| Present | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | - | cor 'I run' | -ons | corons | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -s | cors | -ez | corez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -t | cort | ent | corent |
The Old French verb has two past tenses, an imperfective (which traces back to the Latin imperfective in -bam, for example cantabam 'I sang') and a preterite (Fr. passe/simple), which goes back to the Latin perfective form, e.g. cantavi 'I have sung'. Latin cantabam survived as chantoie in Old French; Latin cantavi survived as chantai in Old French.
The imperfective and preterite forms for the various conjugations in Old French are as follows.
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -er (chanter)
| Imperfective | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -oie | chantoie | -iiens | chantiiens | ||||
| -ïons | chantïons | |||||||
| 2nd pers. | -oies | chantoies | -iiez | chantiiez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -oit | chantoit | -oient | chantoient | ||||
| Preterite | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -ai | chantai | -ames | chantames | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -as | chantas | -astes | chantastes | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -a | chanta | -erent | chanterent |
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -ir with infix (fenir)
| Imperfective | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -issoie | fenissoie | -issiiens | fenissiiens | ||||
| -issïons | fenissïons | |||||||
| 2nd pers. | -issoies | fenissoies | -issiiez | fenissiiez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -issoi(e)t | fenissoi(e)t | -issoient | fenissoient | ||||
| Preterite | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -i | feni | -imes | fenimes | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -is | fenis | -istes | fenistes | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -i | feni | -irent | fenirent |
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -ir without infix (partir)
| Imperfective | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -oie | partoie | -iions | partiions | ||||
| -ïons | partïons | |||||||
| -ïens | partïens | |||||||
| 2nd pers. | -oies | partoies | -iiez | partiiez | ||||
| -ïez | partïez | |||||||
| 3rd pers. | -oit | partoit | oient | partoient | ||||
| Preterite | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -i | parti | -imes | partimes | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -is | partis | -istes | partistes | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -i | parti | -irent | partirent |
Verbal Conjugation, Imperfective and Preterite, Verbs in -re (corre)
| Imperfective | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -oie | coroie | -iiens | coriiens | ||||
| -ïons | corïons | |||||||
| 2nd pers. | -oies | coroies | -iiez | coriiez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -oit | coroit | oient | coroient | ||||
| Preterite | Ending | Sg. | Ending | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | -ui | corui | -umes | corumes | ||||
| 2nd pers. | -us | corus | -ustes | corustes | ||||
| 3rd pers. | -u | coru | -urent | corurent |
8. Avoir and Estre
The verbs avoir and estre in Old French have two functions: they function as full lexical elements and as auxiliairies. Avoir is, first of all, a verb of possession; in addition it is used in a common impersonal construction (see Grammar Point 10), and it is an important tense auxiliary (see Grammar Point 9). Estre is a lexical verb conveying existence, a copula, and an auxiliary. The conjugations of both verbs are as follows:
Verbal Conjugation, avoir
| Present | Sg. | Pl. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | ai 'I have' | avons | ||
| 2nd pers. | as | avez | ||
| 3rd pers. | a | ont | ||
| Imperfective | Sg. | Pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | avoie | 'I had' | avïons, aviiens | |||
| 2nd pers. | avoies | avïez, aviiez | ||||
| 3rd pers. | avoit | avoient | ||||
| Preterite | Sg. | Pl. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | oi 'I had' | eümes, oümes | ||
| 2nd pers. | eüs, oüs | eüstes, oüstes | ||
| 3rd pers. | ot, out | orent, ourent | ||
| Participles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Present participle | aiant | |
| Perfective participle | eüs |
Verbal Conjugation, estre
| Present | Sg. | Pl. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | sui 'I am' | somes, esmes | ||
| 2nd pers. | es, ies, iés | estes | ||
| 3rd pers. | est | sont | ||
| Imperfective (Type I) | Sg. | Pl. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st pers. | iere, ere 'I was' | eriiens, erïons | ||
| 2nd pers. | ieres, eres | eriiez, erïez | ||
| 3rd pers. | iert, ert | ierent, erent | ||
| iere, ere | ||||