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Indo-European Lexicon

PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes

Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon adapted from Pokorny, with our own English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principal parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.

Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear below the reflexes; at the end are links to the previous/next etyma [in Pokorny's alphabetic order] that have reflexes.

All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on, corrections may be made and/or more etyma & reflexes may be added.

Note: this page is for systems/browsers with Unicode^® support, but fonts for only the Unicode 2.0 character set (including combining diacritics). Versions of this page rendered in alternate character sets are available via links (see Unicode 3 and ISO-8859-1) in the left margin.

Pokorny Etymon: 2. (s)kel- 'to owe, be guilty'

Semantic Fields: to Owe; Fault, Guilt

Indo-European Reflexes:

Family/Language	Reflex(es)	PoS/Gram.	Gloss	Source(s)
English
Old English:	sculan, sceal, sculon, scolde	vb.ptpr.IV	shall, ought to	LRC
	scyld(u)	n.fem	sin, guilt; debt, duty, what is owed	GED/ASD
Middle English:	shal	vb.mod	shall	W7
English:	shall	vb.mod	must, will have to	AHD/W7
W-Germanic
Old Frisian:	skela	vb.mod	should	GED
	skelde/schild/schuld	n	debt, duty, what is owed	GED/ASD
	skila, skal, skilun, skolde	vb.ptpr	to owe; shall, must	ASD
Dutch:	zal	vb.mod.1/3.sg	shall, am/is going to	TLL
	zoude	vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret	would; was going to	TLL
Old Saxon:	skolan	vb.mod	should	GED
	skulan, skal, skulun, skolda	vb.ptpr	to owe; shall, must	ASD
	skuld	n	debt, duty, what is owed	GED
Old Low German:	sculd	n	guilt; debt	ASD
Old High German:	scal	vb.mod	shall, must, ought to	W7
	scalto	vb.ptc	dedicated	GED
	scolan, scal, sculumes, scolta	vb.ptpr	to owe; shall, must	ASD
	sculd(a)	n.str.fem	debt, duty, what is owed	GED
	scult	vb.pres.ptc	owing	GED
	s(k)ulan	vb.mod	should	GED
Middle High German:	soln	vb.mod	should	GED
German:	Schuld	n.fem	dept, fault, what is owed	LRC
	schulden	vb	to owe	LRC
	soll	vb.mod.1/3.sg	should	TLL
	sollen	vb.mod	shall	LRC
	sollte	vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret	would	TLL
N-Germanic
Old Norse:	skulu	vb.mod	shall, must, ought	LRC
Old Icelandic:	skuld	n	debt, duty, what is owed	GED
	skuldr	vb.pres.ptc	owing	GED
	skulu, skal, skulum, skyldi	vb.ptpr	to owe; shall, must, should	GED/ASD
	skyld	n	debt, duty, what is owed	GED
Icelandic:	skuld/skyld	n	due, tax; sake	ASD
Danish:	skal	vb.mod.1/3.sg	should; must	TLL
	skulde	vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret	should have, had to	TLL
Swedish:	skall	vb.mod.1/3.sg	shall, am/is going to	TLL
	skulle	vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret	would, should, was going to	TLL
E-Germanic
Gothic:	skula	adj/n.wk	guilty, in debt; debtor	LRC
	skulan, skal, skulum, skulda	vb.ptpr.IV	to owe, have to, be obliged	GED/ASD
Baltic
Old Prussian:	skellānts	vb.past.ptc	indebted	GED
Old Lithuanian:	skelù	vb	to owe	GED
Lithuanian:	kal̃tas	vb.past.ptc	indebted	GED
	skelėti	vb	to owe	GED
	skola	n.fem	debt	W7/LD

Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:

Abbrev.		Meaning
1	=	1st person
3	=	3rd person
IV	=	class 4
adj	=	adjective
fem	=	feminine (gender)
mod	=	modal
n	=	noun
past	=	past (tense)
pres	=	present (tense)
pret	=	preterite (tense)
ptc	=	participle
ptpr	=	preterite-present (verb)
sg	=	singular (number)
str	=	strong (inflection)
vb	=	verb
wk	=	weak (inflection)

Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):

Code		Citation
AHD	=	Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000)
ASD	=	Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898)
GED	=	Winfred P. Lehmann: A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986)
LD	=	Bronius Piesarskas and Bronius Svecevicius: Lithuanian Dictionary (1994)
LRC	=	Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin
TLL	=	Frederick Bodmer: The Loom of Language (1944)
W7	=	Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963)

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