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Indo-European Lexicon

PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes

Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon from Pokorny, with an English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principle parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.

Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear at the end. All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on corrections may be made and/or more reflexes may be added.

Note: this page is for systems/browsers with Unicode^® support and fonts spanning the Unicode 3 character set relevant to Indo-European languages. Versions of this page rendered in alternate character sets are available via links (see Unicode 2 and ISO-8859-1) in the left margin.

Pokorny Etymon: 3. kar- 'hard'

Semantic Field: Hard

Indo-European Reflexes:

Family/Language	Reflex(es)	PoS/Gram.	Gloss	Source(s)
English
Old English:	heard	adj	hard, stern, strong	LRC
Middle English:	-ard	sfx	-ard	W7
	cancer	n	cancer	W7
	canker	n	canker	W7
	hard	adj	hard	W7
	hardi	adj	hardy	W7
	standard	n	standard	W7
English:	-ard	n.sfx	one characterized by some performance/possession/association	AHD/W7
	Cancer	prop.n	the Crab (northern zodiacal constellation)	AHD/W7
	canker	n	erosive/spreading sore	AHD/W7
	carangid	adj	re: marine spiny-finned food fish	AHD/W7
	carcinoma	n	malignant epithelial tumor	AHD/W7
	careen	n	state of careening/being careened	AHD/W7
	carina	n	keel-shaped anatomical part/ridge/process	AHD/W7
	chancre	n	primary sore/ulcer at site of entry of pathogen	AHD/W7
	-cracy	n.sfx	form of government	AHD/W7
	hard	adj	not easily penetrated/yielding to pressure	AHD/W7
	hardy	adj	brave, bold	AHD/W7
	standard	n	conspicuous object (banner) serving as emblem	AHD/W7
	synkaryon	n	cell nucleus formed by fusion of preexisting nuclei	AHD/W7
W-Germanic
Old High German:	Gērhart	prop.n	Gerard	W7
	-hart	prop.n.sfx	(used in personal names)	W7
	hart	adj	hard	RPN
Old Saxon:	hard	adj	hard	RPN
Old Frisian:	herd	adj	hard	RPN
N-Germanic
Old Norse:	harðr	adj	hard, severe, sharp	LRC
	hǫrgr	n.masc	outdoor sanctuary, (stone) altar, temple	LRC
Old Icelandic:	herða	vb	to make hard	RPN
Norwegian:	hard	adj	hard, strong	RPN
Danish:	haard	adj	hard, strong	RPN
Swedish:	hård	adj	hard, strong	RPN
E-Germanic
Gothic:	hardus	adj	hard, stern	RPN
Italic
Latin:	Cancer	prop.n.masc	the Crab (constellation)	W7
	cancer	n.masc	crab, cancer	RPN
	carcinoma	n.neut	cancerous tumor	W7
	carina	n.fem	keel, nutshell	W7
Late Latin:	-cratia	sfx	power	W7
New Latin:	carina	n.fem	a keel-shaped anatomical part	W7
	synkaryon	n.neut	a cell nucleus formed by the fusion of two nuclei	W7
Old Italian:	carena	n.fem	keel of a ship	W7
Old French:	hardi	adj	bold, hardy	W7
Old North French:	cancre	n.masc	crab, canker, cancer	W7
Middle French:	carène	n.fem	keel	W7
	-cratie	sfx	power	W7
French:	chancre	n.masc	canker, chancre	W7
Spanish:	caranga	n.fem	carangid, a fish	W7
Baltic
Lithuanian:	kratùs	adj	rough, uneven	RPN
Hellenic
Ionic:	κάρτος	n	strength, might	RPN
Homeric Greek:	κρατύς	adj	strong, mighty	RPN
Greek:	καρκίνος	n	crab	RPN
	karkinos	n.masc	crab, cancer	W7
	karkinōma	n.neut	cancer	W7
	κάρτα	adv	very much, extremely	LRC
	καρτερός	adj	strong, stout, staunch	RPN
	karyon	n.neut	nut	W7
	κρατέω	vb	to hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer	LRC
	-kratia	sfx	power, rule	W7
	κράτος	n	strength, might, power	RPN
Indic
Sanskrit:	karkaṭa-ḥ	n	crab	RPN
	karkara-ḥ	adj	hard, firm	RPN
	karkaśá-ḥ	adj	rough, hard	RPN
Pali:	kakkasa-	adj	rough, harsh	RPN

Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:

Abbrev.		Meaning
adj	=	adjective
adv	=	adverb(ial)
fem	=	feminine (gender)
masc	=	masculine (gender)
n	=	noun
neut	=	neuter (gender)
prop	=	proper
sfx	=	suffix
vb	=	verb

Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):

Code		Citation
AHD	=	Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000)
LRC	=	Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin
RPN	=	Allan R. Bomhard: Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic (2002)
W7	=	Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963)