A Brief History of Nanotechnology
|
Most histories of nanotechnology start in the second half of the twentieth century but, in fact, nanomaterials have been around for centuries. Renaissance artists used paints and glazes with unique properties of color and iridescence or brilliance that were caused by nanoparticles. Carbon black has been used in automobile tires for the last century to reinforce the rubber material, and vaccines often consist of one or more proteins with nanoscale dimensions. In nature, we find countless ‘nanomachines’ to perform a number of biological functions in living organisms such as flagella motion and flexing muscles. While nanomaterials have been present in the world for a long time, scientific discussion about the nanoscale was only initiated in 1959 when physicist Richard Feynman gave a now famous after-dinner lecture titled, “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” Feynman, who worked on the development of the atomic bomb in the 1940s and later won the Nobel Prize for research in quantum electrodynamics, imagined a new type of science where molecules could be manipulated one by one with molecular machines. Feynman did not use the term ‘nanotechnology’ to describe this new scientific field (the term would be introduced in a scientific paper by Norio Taniguchi in 1974) but he sparked the imagination of physicists and material scientists as to the possibilities of a new type of science at a very small scale.
Another nanotechnology breakthrough occurred in 1985 with the discovery of fullerenes by a team of chemists who were subsequently awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work. The most popular types of fullerenes are Buckyballs (spherical fullerenes named after the architect Buckminster Fuller because they resemble his geodesic dome buildings) and carbon nanotubes (cylindrical fullerenes). These structures consist of carbon molecules that are notable for their high strength, conductivity, resistance to heat, and chemical stability. For example, carbon nanotubes have strength properties 100 times that of steel at only one-sixth of the weight. Nanotubes are not only the strongest materials that humans have created, they are also light and flexible (but very expensive to manufacture). Some of the first commercial products to incorporate nanotubes into conventional materials include tennis rackets and golf clubs, but one can imagine many commercial and industrial applications that could take advantage of the performance characteristics of fullerenes. The development of the STM and the discovery of fullerenes are enormous scientific breakthroughs and most of today’s work on nanotechnology is much more modest. The majority of current research resembles material science research where scientists attempt to find commercial applications for nanomaterials and nanomanufacturing processes. Nanotechnology is being developed through funding by government agencies and private commercial interests to develop a wide range of products to take advantage of the special properties exhibited by nanomaterials. Microchip manufacturers were the earliest adopters of nanomanufacturing with companies such as IBM and Hewlett Packard devoting significant amounts of money to furthering the science and application of nano for microprocessor fabrication. In addition, a number of products are currently available to consumers including computer data storage devices, paints, sunscreens, stain and water repellent clothing, anti-reflective and anti-fogging glass, and sports equipment. Beyond consumer products, nanotechnology has potential applications in medicine, defense, energy production, chemical manufacturing, environmental cleanup, and many other fields. |
|
Further Reading:
|
Starting a new field of science is no easy task and it took 22 years for nanotechnology to be translated from the realm of imagination to reality. In 1981, IBM physicists Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Binnig invented the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM). The STM is capable of imaging individual atoms by using a tiny electric current and a fine needle to detect the height of individual atoms. These instruments don’t “see” atoms like conventional optical microscopes but rather “sense” atoms by registering minute changes in electric current. Being able to “see” atoms was only one of the advantages of STM. The researchers also discovered that they could use the needle to pick up and move atoms into precise locations. In 1990, another group of IBM scientists used the STM to spell their company logo using 35 xenon atoms on a nickel surface. This was the first time that scientists had constructed something by manipulating individual atoms. The STM and subsequent imaging tools were crucial instruments that effectively made the futuristic concept of nanotechnology a reality.
