SECOND MILLENIUM NEAR EAST

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Isin-Larsa Period, 2017-1763 B.C.

  • after fall of Ur III, a return to separate city-states in the old manner; main rivals in Mesopotamia are Isin and Larsa
    • Kanesh (Kültepe) in Anatolia--a merchant suburb (karum) outside the city wall
      • inhabited by Assyrian merchants
      • an important archive--records of merchants; over 10,000 from this period (level II, c. 1880-1820), of which 4000 published so far
      • documents concern trade with Ashur in Assyria (Northern Mesopotamia) in great detail
        • woolen textiles and tin from Ashur, gold and silver from Kanesh 

Old Babylonian Period, first half of 2nd millenium B.C.

  • Hammurabi of Babylon gradually establishes an empire (ruled 1792-1750 B.C.)
    • conquers Uruk, Ur, Isin, Larsa (in 1759), Mari (in 1757), Eshnunna (1755)
    •  letters from Larsa show he involved himself in details of administering empire
    • best known for his law code, in which he states its purpose as follows: "to cause justice to prevail in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil, that the strong may not oppress the weak"
      • 282 sections cover commercial, family and property law, prices and wages, fees and regulations concerning slavery
      • topped by his portrait with god Shamash
    • palace takes on more power, at expense of temples
      • one effect was the expansion of the private sector, in trade, industry, agriculture
    • tablets show contracts, loans, property sales between private individuals
  • Mari in Syria--palace of king Zimrilim (1779-1757)
    • complex layout--courtyards, two 25 sq. m. rooms South of West courtyard
    • paintings include traditional designs as on seals, and narrative
      • fragmentary war-scene
      • mythological scene--bearded figure under sky vault
      • scenes of offering
      • investiture of king
    • another important archive with over 20,000 tablets, 1/4 published by 1990
      • confirms use of horse-drawn chariot, which appears in Syrian figurines and on cylinder seals from 19th century Kanesh
  • Hittites destroy Babylon (1595 B.C.)
    • this puts an end to the Old Babylonian empire; 150-year dark age follows in Babylonia (Southern Mesopotamia)

Kassite Period, 1600-1155 B.C.

  • Kassites in charge in Babylonia (Southern Mesopotamia), Assyrians in Assyria (Northern Mesopotamia); not much interesting art or history
    • adopted Babylonian way of life; restored temples
    • economic base is agriculture
    • marriage contracts with Egyptians in 18 dynasty
    • still standing (though eroded) ziggurat at Dur-Kurigalzu belongs to King Kurigalzu in 1300's--also a palace
      • early travellers identified this ziggurat with Tower of Babel in Bible
      • it stands 57 m. high; still has reed matting between every 7 courses of bricks, and twisted ropes throughout
    • kudurru--a stone monument set up to commemorate a royal land grant
      • so functions as a boundary stone
      • carved with symbols of gods who witness transaction
    • high point of Kassite rule was the 13th cy. B.C.
    • 12,000 tablets from Nippur (religious center of Sumer), most belonging to this period
      • to these we owe preservation of Akkadian and Sumerian texts
    • Assyrians: military power, defeat Kassites in one battle c. 1230 and develop an empire that stretched from Euphrates to mountains of Iran
  • Hittites: have a powerful empire based in Anatolia (Turkey); capital is Hattusas
    • an Indo-European people, unlike those we've met so far
    • we know a considerable amount about their political, religious structure but not much about economy
      • king is "priest of the gods", deified only after death
      • king dispenses justice to vassal kings
      • king must maintain ritual purity, against black magic
    • monumental architecture, including massive walls with gates
    • rock sanctuary at Yazilikaya, 2 km. from Hattusas 
      • sculpted reliefs of deities, king
    • myth of sky god, Anu, being castrated and overthrown by son Kumarbi, who in turn supplanted by Teshub the storm god (see Nagle)
      • Greeks have a version of the same myth: sky god Ouranos castrated by son Kronos, who in turn supplanted by Zeus the storm god
    • they have diplomatic relations, occasional wars with Egyptians
      • the two empires share a border in Syria
      • Tutankhamen's widow (Ankhesenamen) asks Hittite king Suppiluliumas III to send her a son to marry; but he is ambushed and killed by Egyptian cavalry leader Ay, who then marries her himself!
      • Ramses II clashes with them (King Mursilis) at battle of Kadesh (1285)
        • treaty after Kadesh with King Hattusilis III: Specifies peace forever, not cross each others' boundaries, send help vs. external enemy attack or internal rebellion; support son + successor; extradition clauses specifying no punishment
  • Meanwhile, elsewhere.....
    • Syria: harassed and taken over by Egyptians (Tuthmosis I-III, 1479-1425)
    • Iran: Elamites; capital at Susa; bronze statue of queen Napirasu, 13th cy.
      • statue weighs 1750 lbs. without head
    • Around 1200 Egyptian, Hittite, Mycenaean Greek empires all fall: much talk of attacks by the "Peoples of the Sea"
      • other groups also fade out of view, except the Assyrians

Law Codes

  • Ur-Nammu, Sumerian Ur III period, c. 2100
    • prologue on his rise to power; states opposition to rich exploiting poor
    • 'laws' maybe actual decisions, on a wide variety of topics: marriage and divorce; bodily injury; agricultural laws, etc.
    • penalty is by compensation
  • Hammurabi, Old Babylonian period, 1792-1550
    • prologue on validity of his law: let a man with a grievance read the stele and find the applicable law
    • 282 sections of 'laws' (maybe actual decisions: never cited in court records), on a wide variety of topics: property, slaves, inheritance, marriage, trade, rates of hire, etc.
    • penalty is by retaliation (the lex talionis)
  • Hittite, Kassite period, later (1400-1200) copies of laws which originally probably drafted c. 1650
    • 200 sections, ranging from murder to the theft of beehives!
    • lists what IS permitted, as well as what is not
    • includes revisions of earlier laws: usually new penalty is more lenient physical punishment, or fines (compensation)

Last updated: 2 January 2004

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