Glossary

of General Family Studies Terms & Concepts from the Readings

A B C D E F G H I J L M N O P R S T U V W

References

Accelerated courtship - progression to marriage moves rapidly to a high level of commitment; usually characterized by compatible interaction, with some external events setting the stage for quick commitment (Care & Lloyd, 1992: 48). See interpersonal process model. Also see prolonged, accelerated-arrested, and intermediate courtship.

Accelerated relationships - develop and deteriorate rapidly (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 93). Also see low-level, moderate, prolonged-turbulent , and prolonged-smooth.

Accelerated-arrested courtship - progression to marriage moves rapidly to a high level of commitment, but a downturn in commitment occurs late in the progression; often partners became more active with each other over time and less active with their social networks (see withdrawal-integration hypothesis) (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 50). See interpersonal process model. Also see accelerated, intermediate, and prolonged courtship.

Accommodation - the willingness of a spouse, when a partner has engaged in potentially destructive behavior, to inhibit tendencies to react destructively in turn and to instead engage in constructive reactions (Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991: 53).

Accommodation model - when problematic dispositions or incompatible desires surface in a relationship they initially create disappointments and antagonisms; over time, however, partners who remain together maintain a satisfactory bond by adapting their expectations or otherwise coming to terms with their situation (Huston & Houts, 1996: 2). Also see disillusionment, perpetual problems.

Account - a statement made by a social actor to explain unanticipated or untoward behavior; may take the form of an excuse or justification (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 151). See causal accounts.

Actuarial prediction - a prediction based on group (not on a specific individual's) characteristics (Stanovich, 1996: 136); usually superior to expert clinical prediction.

Addiction escalator - an individual perpetuates a relationship in order to avoid the psychological withdrawal symptoms accompanying its cessation (Bolton, 1961: 176). See involvement escalator, commitment escalator, escalator, fantasy escalator, and idealization escalator.

Adjustment - binging into agreement the behavior of one person with the expectations of another, accompanied by a feeling of acceptance of the modified behavior by the one who makes the adjustment (Dyer, 1962: 232 - 233). Also see making up.

Affectional behaviors - those that serve to maintain interpersonal attraction between husband and wife by conveying affection, acceptance, and approval (Wills, Weiss & Patterson, 1974: 803).

Affiliative behavior - acts that promote closeness of association between two people and possible changes in their relatedness (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: 4).

Alternative attractions [Levinger] - forces driving an individual into an alternative relationship (Johnson, 1991: 137).

Ambivalence [Braiker & Kelley] - feelings of confusion concerning the partner (Huston, 1994).

Ambivalent indirectness [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory involving a unilateral decision and an indirect dissolution strategy, followed by attempts at reconciliation and multiple disengagement attempts before final termination (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See critical features of dissolution.

Attitudes - may be operationalized in a relationship through such constructs as satisfaction (e.g., Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 721).

Attitudinal repulsion / attraction process - people first avoid dissimilar others, and then approach similar others [Byrne, Clore, & Smeaton] (Brehm, 1992, 1990: 78).

Attraction - may refer to attitude, behavior, or belongingness (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: 3). [Levinger & Snoek] - an attitude: one person's positivity toward another (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: 3).

Attraction by association - a potential partner takes on the emotional tone of the surrounding situation (Brehm, 1992: 60).

Attractions [Levinger] - forces driving an individual into a relationship (Johnson, 1991: 136).

Attribute similarity - a compatibility model of courtship assuming that individuals select marital partners on the basis of whether they are similar to each other on an array of attributes, such as attitudes, values, physical attractiveness, age, religion, race, or ethnicity (Cate & Lloyd, 35 - 36).

Attribution theory - studies the process by which partners search for the causes of events, the products of that causal search, and the relationship between behavior and that causal process and its products (Surra, 1990: 855). The courtship graph is a good example of attributional report.

Attribution conflict [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution tactic that is high in directness and low in other-orientation; an intense argument becomes the reason for the breakup of the relationship (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk , fait accompli, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away.

Attribution - a cognitive explanation of human behavior (Kayser, 1993: 104).

Balance theory - people desire consistency among their thoughts, feelings, and social relationships. When two people interact, reciprocity maintains balance (Brehm, 1992: 83).

Barriers [Levinger] - forces acting to keep an individual in a relationship (Johnson, 1991: 137); increase the costs of dissolution (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 400).

Behavior - may be operationalized in a relationship in a variety of ways, including expressions of warmth and hostility (e.g., Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 721).

Behavioral theory - rooted in Thibaut & Kelley; the focus is on interpersonal exchange of specific behaviors. Rewarding or positive behaviors enhance global evaluations of the marriage; punishing or negative behaviors do harm (satisfaction is each individual's weighing and perception of attractions and alternatives) (Karney & Bradbury, 1995: 5).

Benefit - something one member of a relationship chooses to give to the other that is of use or value to the person receiving it (Mills and Clark, 1994: 30). Also see reward.

Burden of care - by taking responsibility for the emotional well-being of the family, women open themselves to the ups and downs of those they care for. Women try to buffer their husbands' stress and in the process are recipients of some of it (Larson & Richards, 1994: 120).

Causal accounts - products of inferential processes whereby partners seek to understand and explain why events occur as they do in a relationship; organized, stored representations that persist long after the events themselves (Surra & Bohman, 1991: 287). See accounts.

Close relationship - [Berscheid] - the partners are highly interdependent: they have frequent, strong, and diverse interconnections across a duration of time (Berscheid, 1985: 147; also Surra & Milardo, 1991: 14; Simpson, 1987: 684). [Huston & Ashmore] - associations that are commonly thought to be informal, diversified, cooperative, and friendly (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 168).

Closeness - the person acts as if some or all aspects of the partner, such as resources, perspectives, and characteristics are partially the person's own (Aron, Aron, Tudor & Nelson, 1991: 242).

Cognitive illusion - even when the correct answer is known, people may be drawn to an incorrect conclusion by the nature of the problem or question. For example, people may ignore statistical probabilities and rely on more vivid (but less reliable) information (Stanovich, 1996: 139-140).

Commitment - [exchange] - factor of an interpersonal relationship pledging the semi-exclusive use of the other party as a source of certain specified role-supports and other exchange rewards; a strategy for increasing and ensuring the dependability of a source of exchange rewards (McCall & Simmons, 1978: 169); related to a person's willingness to participate in a relationship over a prolonged period of time; involves abandonment of strict economic exchange principles and direct reciprocity and the adoption of an exchange strategy that involves consideration of future rewards (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 404 - 405). [symbolic interactionism] - the cost of giving up a social relationship, line of action, or identity; influences the salience of an identity (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 146). [Huston] - the likelihood that a person will continue to adhere to a relationship once it has begun (Surra & Huston, 1987: 99). [Johnson] - in general is in regard to the maintenance of a relationship; it is commitment to lines of action that will prevent the elimination of interdependence (Johnson, 1991: 120). See commitment framework. [Kelley] - a function of (1) the average level of the difference between pro- and con- causes, and (2) the variability in this difference (Surra & Huston, 1987: 98). [Rusbult] - the tendency to maintain a relationship and feel psychologically "attached" to it. Determined by a combination of satisfaction, alternatives, and investments (Johnson, 1991: 135).

Commitment escalator - a formal, informal, or implicit pledging of commitment becomes both a pledge to another and to a definition of self and one's broader situation (Bolton, 1961: 176). See involvement escalator, escalator, addiction escalator, fantasy escalator, and idealization escalator.

Commitment framework [Johnson] - Contains personal, moral, and structural commitment; maintains a conceptual distinction between intentions and the experiences of commitment that lead to intentions (Johnson, 1991). See commitment.

Companionate marriage - adheres less strongly to traditional role prescriptions; couples tend to center their leisure time around each other (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 179). [Burgess & Wallin] - see interactional marriage.

Comparison level - the rewards and costs an individual feels he/she deserves (Surra, 1990: 853).

Comparison level for alternatives - the lowest level of outcomes one will accept in light of outcomes perceived to be available elsewhere ( Surra, 1990: 853).

Compatibility - ratio of facilitating to interfering events in two partners' overall interaction (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 314).

Compatibility models of courtship - assume that a single dimension of relationships operates to influence the choice of marital partner; usually concerned with the extent to which various stable psychological or demographic attributes matched (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 34). Also compatibility testing. See complementary needs, attribute similarity. Also see stage models, interpersonal process model.

Compatibility testing model [Robins] - views individual partners primarily as informational appraisers who subject another person to increasingly selective appraisals as information filters in; treats the other's contribution to the relationship as relatively fixed (Levinger & Rands, 319 - 320).

Compatibility theory - assumes an open marketplace for mate selection, ignoring issues of status, money, and cultural or spatial proximity; assumes that the behavior of partners in courtship is anchored in stable psychological attributes (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 193). See mate selection models.

Complementary needs - a compatibility model of courtship assuming that people have certain psychological needs and that people seek marital partners who can fulfill or complement those needs. For example, one partner may have a high need for dominance while the other has a high need for submissiveness (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 35).

Complementary roles - the husband has an occupation outside the household, which provides for the family's economic needs, while the wife has primary responsibility for the household, children, and the emotional well-being of all (Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: 1081).

Conflict - stems from noncorrespondence of outcomes at the given and dispositional levels (Kelley, 1979: 147); reflected in anger and disagreement (Huston, 1994).

Conflict about conflict - often traced to sex differences in communication style; examples include failure to talk about problems, uncontrolled expressions of anger, sulking and withdrawal during quarrels, and improper methods used to get partners to do what they don't want to do (Kelley, 1979:153). See metaconflict.

Conflict habituated [Cuber & Haroff] - a relationship in which the emotional experiences are predominantly negative. If the quarrels have become habitual, there should be no "interruptions" and thus no occasion for intense emotion (Berscheid, 1985: 159); a low-compatibility, high-interdependence marriage (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 321). Also see parallel, interactional, and empty-shell.

Conjunction rule - the co-occurrence of two events is less probable than the occurrence of a single event (Stanovich, 1996: 166).

Connectivity principle - a new theory must not only explain new facts, but also account for old facts (Stanovich, 1996: 107).

Converging evidence / operations - a series of experiments consistently support a given theory, while collectively eliminating rival explanations. For example, proof that cigarette smoking causes cancer does not rest on one dazzling study, but on a large collection of several types of reasearch (Stanovich, 1996: 112, 119).

Cost escalation [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution strategy that is low in directness and other-orientation; the disengager increases the costs of the relationship in the hopes that the partner will break things off (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90) See state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal , pseudodeescalation, fait accompli, fading away.

Critical features of dissolution [Baxter] - gradual vs. sudden onset; unilateral vs. bilateral desire to end the relationship; direct vs. indirect termination strategy; rapid vs. protracted negotiation over dissolution; presence vs. absence of attempts to reconcile; continuation vs. termination of the relationship (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See preserving indirectness, ambivalent indirectness, mutual ambivalence, swift explicit mutuality , swift implicit mutuality, and swift indirectness.

Cultural boundaries - each particular society regards various means of reaching a goal as possible, preferred, accepted, disapproved, or unthinkable; this limits the individual's range of alternatives in terms of whos, whats, whens, and wheres (McCall & Simmons, 1978: 23).

Devitalized marriage - see empty shell.

Directionality problem - In a correlation, the direction of causation may be from A to B, or it may be from B to A (Stanovich, 1996: 75).

Direct rewards - all the positive consequences we obtain by being with someone (Brehm, 1992: 60).

Directness [Baxter] - extent to which a desire is explicitly stated to the partner; in relationship dissolution, some strategies are quite direct, whereas others involve an attempt to break up the pairing without stating that breaking up is the goal. Direct strategies are likely to be used when the partners desire contact in the future, the breakup is mutual, and the factor that precipitated the breakup is external to the relationship (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See fait accompli, state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away. Also see other-orientation.

Disaffection - the replacement of positive affect with neutral affect; the absence of loving feelings usually occurring after an accumulation of dissatisfactions with the marriage (Kayser, 1993: 6 - 7). Also see marital dissatisfaction, marital breakdown.

Disillusionment model - portrays lovers as putting their best foot forward and somewhat oblivious to each other's - and the relationship's - shortcomings until after the wedding (Huston & Houts, 1996: 2). Also see accommodation, perpetual problems.

Dispositional interdependence - partners influence one another through the outcomes they derive from the display of interpersonal dispositions during interaction (Surra, 1990: 855). Also see interdependence (behavioral).

Dyadic inferences - statements about phenomena rooted in interaction between the partners. Ex: "We decided it was OK to date others" (Surra & Huston, 1987: 104).

Dyadic interactions - behaviors that occur between individuals in a relationship; for example, conflict and self-disclosure (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 59).

Dyadic knowledge - one partner's knowledge about the personality and attributes of the other and about the qualities of their relationship (Surra & Milardo, 1991: 20).

Dyadic patterns - factors that are derived from the degree of match between individual attributes of each partner in a relationship; for example, attitude similarity is derived from the degree to which each partner's attitudes mirror those of the other partner (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 59).

Dyadic states - refer to social psychological phenomena that arise out of a relationship between people, but may be held by only one member of a couple; for example, commitment and satisfaction (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 58).

Dynamic interpersonal conflict - open conflict between persons, involving the anxiety associated with the open expression of aggression and the possible loss of benefits derived from the relationship, and the anger associated with the frustration of personal goals. Often, the new information exchanged in an open conflict situation may lead to a reinterpretation of the partner's past behavior. Joint compromises during conflict or the reconciliation following an open breach in the interaction may also provide each partner with evidence of the other's attachment to the relationship. Strong conflict provides a point where a relationship may possibly take a sharp turn for better or worse (Braiker & Kelley, 1979: 160 - 162). Also see intrapersonal conflict and structural interpersonal conflict.

Early-determinism model - relationship development is conceived as a change in relationship state (e.g., together or apart) or other outcome (e.g., change in satisfaction); these changes describe development for all couples; properties of relationships that are in place early on affect the course of the relationship from then on (Surra, 1990: 858); early relationship features work throughout the course of the relationship to determine stability or other relationship states (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 46). Also see gradual-differentiation, incremental convergence and divergence, and progressive stages.

Economic pressure - demoralizes by focusing attention on meeting financial needs to the neglect of other desired activities; may create link from family economic hardship to spousal depressed mood and hostile marital interactions (Conger, Ge, & Lorenz, 1994: 191).

Emotional transmission - strong emotions are passed from one spouse to another; often, husbands' prior mood predicts wives' subsequent mood, especially when men come home from work (Larson & Richards, 1994: 119).

Emotional deadening [Dizard] - decline in happiness and love between spouses; moving toward an empty shell marriage (Kayser, 1993: 18).

Empty-shell marriage - A low-compatibility, low-interdependence marriage (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 321). Also see interactional, parallel, and conflict-habituated.

Enduring vulnerabilities - stable demographic, historical, personality, and experiential factors that individuals bring to marriage (Karney & Bradbury, 1995: 22).

Environmental spoiling - negative effects of proximity: living close to each other provides the necessary setting for conflicts to occur and for hostility to develop (Brehm, 1992: 62).

Essentialism [Popper] - a layperson's criticism of a theory that does not give ultimate explanations of phenomena in terms of their underlying essences or their essential properties (Stanovich, 1996: 35). See operationalism.

Escalator - an action sequence with built-in momentum such that, once the individual takes the first step, he is carried along toward a final commitment (Bolton, 1961: 176). See involvement escalator, commitment escalator, addiction escalator, fantasy escalator and idealization escalator.

Escape - a simple conflict resolution strategy in which a partner avoids or denies the problem (in the case of intrapersonal conflict), or withdraws from the interaction (in the case of dynamic interpersonal conflict (Braiker & Kelley, 1979: 161). Also see exaggerated action.

Event-driven courtship - changes in commitment are based upon salient happenings, generally involving third parties or dyadic events. Large, quick changes in commitment are not unusual. Associated with lower levels of marital happiness (Surra, 1990: 856). Also see relationship-driven courtship.

Exaggerated action - a simple conflict resolution strategy in which a partner makes a precipitous choice (in the case of intrapersonal conflict) or an aggressive attack (in the case of dynamic interpersonal conflict) (Braiker & Kelley, 1979: 161). Also see escape.

Exchange relationships - members benefit one another in response to specific benefits received in the past or expected in the future (Mills and Clark, 1994: 29; also Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985: 99).

Exchange theory - see social exchange.

Exit - a strategy for deal with dissatisfaction in a close relationship, in which the person tries to actively destroy the relationship. Ex: moving out, abuse, screaming (Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991: 53). Also see neglect, loyalty.

Expediency centered - a relationship development process characterized by a strongly felt pressure to marry on the part of one or both members. If only one partner feels pressured, the other tends to be inexperienced, highly suggestible, or apathetic. Personality "fit" and mutuality of values are only superficially considered (Bolton, 1961: 176). Also see personality meshing, identity clarification, relation centered, and pressure and intrapersonal centered processes.

Expressiveness - a communal orientation to others (Huston & Houts, 1996: 5). Also called psychological femininity.

External attributions - references to the social network, life events or circumstances, institutions, or uncontrollable circumstances (Surra & Bohman, 1991: 287).

External barriers - primary group affiliations, community pressures, legal pressures, and material economic considerations that foster dependence by increasing the social and / or economic cost of terminating the relationship (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 401).

Extradyadic attribution - marital dissolution is attributed to events and people outside the couple. For example, "death of a friend," "child's illness," "financial problems" (Kayser, 1993: 104). Also see partner, self, and interactive attributions.

Factor analysis - determines the degree to which sets of measured variables cluster together (Stanovich, 1996: 172).

Fading away [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution strategy that is low in directness and high in other-orientation; both partners know that the relationship has ended but do not talk about it (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fait accompli.

Fait accompli [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution tactic that is high in directness and low in other-orientation; the disengager tells the partner that the relationship is over with no hope of repair or compromise (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell , withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away.

Faith - emotional security on the part of the individual enabling one to look beyond available evidence and feel, with assurance, that the partner will be responsive and caring despite the vicissitudes of an uncertain future (Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985: 97).

Falsifiability criterion - any respectable theory must have implications for actual events so that predictions derived from the theory can potentially be shown to be false (Stanovich, 1996: 21 -22). See operationalism.

Familiarity - refers to frequency of contact (Brehm, 1992: 64). See mere exposure.

Family economic hardship - can be assessed using such measures as per capita income, debt-to-asset ratio, unstable work, and income loss (Conger, Ge, & Lorenz, 1994: 193).

Family identity - a shared belief system or set of implicit assumptions passively accepted by all family members, which serve to govern interactional behavior within the family (Steinglass, 1978: 359).

Fantasy escalator - an individual compulsively maintains the relationship as a symbol of some fantasy (Bolton, 1961: 176). See involvement escalator, commitment escalator, addiction escalator, escalator, and idealization escalator.

Figure-ground explanation - when spouses begin to recognize their partners' flaws, which contrast sharply with the previous idealization of the partner; thus the flaws become more salient to the disaffecting spouses (Kayser, 1993: 52). Also see vigilance.

Filtering theory [Kerckhoff & Davis] - stage model of courtship positing that early in a relationship, similarity in interests and social characteristics encourages partners to know one another; later, similarity in attitudes or values is salient to forming bond; later, deeper aspects of need compatibility become most salient (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: p.14; Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 39).

Gender - a construct denoting a bundle of correlated dispositions (e.g., values, expectations) and situational contexts (e.g., work role, power) that combine to account for the development of gender-differentiated patterns (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 169); formed by a process of social construction of maleness and femaleness as oppositional categories with unequal social value; as opposed to sex role, the central processes are categorization and stratification (Ferree, 1990: 868).

Gender prescriptions - represent expectations about what men and women ought to do and what they should be like. One measure is the Spence et al. Attitudes Toward Women Scale (Huston & Geis, 1993: 91).

Gender strategies - mechanisms used to accomplish needed work, given a couple's cultural beliefs regarding gender norms (Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: 1088).

Gender theory - focuses upon how specific behaviors and roles are given gendered meanings, how labor is divided to express gender difference symbolically, and how diverse social structures - rather than just families - incorporate gender values and convey gender advantages [Hess]. Analyzes the construction of packages of structures, behaviors, and attitudes for each sex. Its central focus is on the processes of categorization and stratification (Ferree, 1990: 868). Also see role theory.

General systems theory - sees organization rather than reduction as the unifying principle, and therefore searches for general structural isomorphisms in systems; its basic tenets are wholeness, organization, and relationships (Steinglass, 1978: 302).

Gradual-differentiation model - assumes that relationships pass through periods of growth and deterioration of stability and instability over their existence; presupposes that multiple causes affect relationship development (Surra, 1990: 857). See interpersonal process model. Also see early determinism, incremental convergence and divergence, and progressive stages.

Hypotheses - specific predictions derived from theories (Stanovich, 1996: 22).

Illusion of control - the tendency to believe that personal skill can influence random outcomes (Stanovich, 1996: 148).

Idealization escalator - an individual indicates his/her mate choice to others, creating in some cases a tendency o idealize the image of the partner in order to maintain self-esteem (Bolton, 1961: 176). See involvement escalator, commitment escalator, addiction escalator, fantasy escalator, and escalator.

Identity clarification - a relationship development process in which the two individuals may initially differ about values; however, interaction brings about increasing agreement along with a role pattern tending to be egalitarian. More than in any other process there is a withdrawal into the relationship and away from outside influences (Bolton, 1961: 175). Also see personality meshing, relations centered, pressure and intrapersonal centered, and expediency centered processes.

Illusory correlations - when people believe that two events should occur together, they will tend to notice instances where the two events co-occur. They might then conclude that the events are correlated, when in fact they are random (Stanovich, 1996: 147). For example, "Whenever I think of Aunt Ima, she calls me" (there may be thousands of instances in which you thought of Aunt Ima and she did not call; however, those instances are not as vivid as the occasional co-occurrences).

Incremental convergence and divergence - change in relationship development is conceived as a change in state or outcome that is applicable to all couples; relationship properties emerge with the passage of time (Surra, 1990: 859). See symbolic exchange. Also see gradual-differentiation, early-determinism,, and progressive stages.

Institutional marriage - characterized by traditional roles; husband as breadwinner, wife as homemaker, with each pursuing their own leisure interests (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 179). [Burgess & Wallin] - see parallel marriage.

Instrumental behaviors - those necessary for the relationship to survive as a social and economic unit (Wills, Weiss & Patterson, 1974: 803).

Interaction (statistical) - the effect of one variable may depend upon another variable (Stanovich, 1996: 128). For example, an intervention for depression could work quite well with junior high school girls, but have little or no effect on the boys. The variable of gender complicates the assessment of the intervention.

Interactional marriage [Bernard] - demands a great deal more involvement in the relationship; companionship, expression of love, recognition of personality (as distinguished from mere role performance) are among the specifications of this pattern (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 315). [Levinger & Rands] - a highly compatible, highly interdependent marriage (1985: 321). Also see parallel, conflict-habituated, and empty-shell.

Interactive attributions - marital dissolution is attributed to features of the dyadic unit itself. For example, "we could not communicate," "the way my spouse and I solve disagreements" (Kayser, 1993: 104). Also see extradyadic, partner , and self attributions.

Interchain connections - causal connections from one person's event chain to the other's (Berscheid, 1985: 137 - 8).

Interdependence - how people in a relationship control each other's outcomes, which include rewards, benefits, and punishments (Kelley, 1979: 13, 31 - 33; also see Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 721, 724).

Internal barriers - feelings of obligation and indebtedness to the partner (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 400).

Intermediate courtship - a moderate progression to high commitment; generally low in conflict, but with some initial hesitancy about commitment (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 49). See interpersonal process model. Also see accelerated, accelerated-arrested, and prolonged courtship.

Interpersonal process model of courtship - posits that actual interaction within relationships is of primary importance in the development of commitment or marriage; interactional aspects also tie to individual characteristics of the partners, relationship attributes, and the social and physical environment (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 45). See accelerated, accelerated-arrested, intermediate, and prolonged courtship; gradual differentiation model. Also see stage models, compatibility models.

Interpersonal attraction - the desire to approach someone. Involves the needs, preferences, and desires of the person who becomes attracted; the perceived characteristics of the person who is seen as attractive; and the situation in which these two individuals find themselves. Influenced by two types of rewards: direct rewards and attraction by association (Brehm, 1992: 59).

Interpersonal dispositions [Huston & Robins] - attitudes and beliefs partners hold about one another and about the nature of their relationship (Surra, 1990: 855).

Interpersonal inequity - lack of mutuality, usually consisting of a narcissistic partner - the emotional "taker" - and a self-denying partner - the emotional "giver" (Kayser, 1993: 94).

Interpersonal values - beliefs about the morally correct ways to treat people with whom one is interdependent; they may be bounded by ingroup-outgroup distinctions (Kelley, 1979: 112).

Intimacy - [Levinger & Snoek] - emotional closeness: one of three aspects of any human relationship (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: 5). [McCall & Simmons] - giving or showing certain things to only one other person and to no one else; this emphasis on uniqueness can destroy the relationship through "death by detail" (McCall & Simmons, 1978: p.175). [Dindia] - high familiarity, and knowledge of private, highly unique and personalistic information about the other; a major dimension of change in the development of a personal relationship (Dindia, 1994: 92).

Intrapersonal conflict - occurs in a relationship when a person is uncertain about which of several courses of action to follow - for example, satisfying some long standing interest outside the relationship vs. fulfilling a valued role or personal ideal that is held within and for the relationship. Creates tensions associated with counterpressures and decision under uncertainty (Braiker & Kelly, 1979:160 - 161). Also see structural interpersonal conflict and dynamic interpersonal conflict.

Intrapersonal inferences - the self, the partner, or the relationship is evaluated against some ideal or normatively derived standard. These reflect personal beliefs brought to the relationship at its inception. Ex: "I graduated from high school and it was time to find a husband" (Surra & Huston, 1987: 104).

Inversion error - the assumption that the probability of A, given B, is the same as the probability of B, given A (Stanovich, 1996: 141).

Investment factors [Rusbult] - Part of the investment model of commitment; factors include satisfaction level, investment size, and alternative quality (Kayser, 1993: 9).

Investment model - satisfaction and commitment have different predictors, positing that satisfaction rises with comparison level, while commitment rises with satisfaction but falls with comparison level for alternatives (Surra, 1990: 853).

Involvement - taps the dimensions of the uniqueness of a relationship, disclosure, outcome correspondence, and motional caring; includes aspects of love and dyadic interaction (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 73). See closeness, interdependence.

Involvement escalator - an individual's plans, identity, and schedule become involved in the relations with a particular person (Bolton, 1961: 176). See escalator, commitment escalator, addiction escalator, fantasy escalator, and idealization escalator.

Joint marital reality - spending time together facilitates shared projects and activities, cultivating a sense of "we-ness" (Larson & Richards, 1994: 127).

Leisure gap [Hochschild] - between men and women; see second shift.

Love [Braiker & Kelley] - feelings of belonging, closeness,and attachment (Huston, 1994). [Heinlein] - that state in which the happiness of another person is essential to your own (Levinger & Snoek, 1972: p.10).

Low-level relationships - relatively short relationship with gradual development and relatively low levels of commitment (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 93). Also see accelerated, moderate, prolonged-turbulent, and prolonged-smooth.

Loyalty - a strategy for dealing with relationship dissatisfaction in which a partner passively but optimistically waits for the situation to improve. Ex: praying, remaining supportive in face of criticism (Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991: 53 - 54). See exit, neglect.

Maintenance - [Braiker & Kelley] - assessed in terms of communication designed to increase satisfaction or decrease dissatisfaction (Huston, 1994); extent to which partners make efforts to resolve problems and improve the relationship (Houston & Houts,1996: 14). [Dindia] - includes both preventive and corrective measures (Dindia, 1994: 100).

Making up - repairing a feeling of unity and cohesion between the couple after conflict. Does not necessarily entail adjustment (Dyer, 1962: 233).

Marital breakdown - decline in a marriage's rewards, ambivalent or turbulent feelings about the relationship [Duck] (Kayser, 1993: 7). Also see disaffection, marital dissatisfaction, marital dissolution, marital instability.

Marital dissatisfaction - a perceived low degree of adjustment or unhappiness with a relationship [Booth, Johnson, & Edwards] (Kayser, 1993: 7). Also see disaffection, marital breakdown.

Marital dissolution - ending of a relationship, usually involving the legal act of divorce or permanent separation [Booth] (Kayser, 1993: 7). Also see marital breakdown, marital instability.

Marital instability - propensity to dissolve a marriage, even though dissolution may not be the final outcome [Booth] (Kayser, 1993: 7). Also see marital breakdown , marital dissolution.

Marriageability - an index of desirable qualities possessed by a potential partner, such as appropriate age, economic circumstance, and similarity of characteristics (Surra, 1990: 847).

Marriage squeeze [Glick] - the oversupply of women resulting when girls of marriageable age born during the baby boom faced a shortage of older men (Surra, 1990: 848).

Matching hypothesis - people prefer others of similar levels of physical attractiveness. Supported by data on same-sex friends [Cash & Derlega]; dating couples [Critelli & Waid]; couples going steady or engaged [Murstein]; serious dating couples, cohabitants, engaged or married couples [White]; couples getting married [Shaphard & Ellis]; and married couples [Murstein & Christy] (Brehm, 1992: 74).

Mate selection models - generally assume that commitment evolves as partners discover areas of compatibility in terms of stable dispositions, values, and desires regarding roles (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 191). See compatibility theory.

Mere exposure - repeated contact with something or someone (Brehm, 1992: 64).

Metaconflict [Braiker & Kelley] - conflict over the conflict process itself (Holmes & Rempel, 1989: 201). See conflict about conflict.

Moderate relationships - develop and dissolve at a moderate and even rate (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 93). Also see low-level, accelerated , prolonged-turbulent, and prolonged-smooth.

Moral commitment - feeling that one ought to continue the relationship; involves consistency values, values regarding the stability of particular types of relationships, and partner-specific obligation (Johnson, 1991: 119 - 122). With personal commitment, also called threshold variables (Lewis & Spanier). Also see structural commitment.

Multiple causation - Any particular behavior is not cause by one single factor; instead, it is the result of a host of different variables (Stanovich, 1996: 127).

Multiple regresssion - allows the correlation between two variables to be recalculated after the influence of other variables are removed (Stanovich, 1996: 73).

Mutual empathy - understanding and acceptance of the feelings of the partner, even feelings different from one's own; validates a spouse's self-concept as well as encouraging the development of that self-concept (Kayser, 1993: 96).

Mutual ambivalence [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory involving a mutual decision and an indirect dissolution strategy, followed by attempts at reconciliation and multiple disengagement attempts before final termination (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See critical features of dissolution.

Mutuality - respectfulness between spouses based on the belief that each individual is an equal partner in the relationship. Behaviors indicating lack of mutuality are criticizing, inability to compromise, attempts to alienate friends of the spouse, jealous behaviors, and psychological/emotional smothering (Kayser, 1993: 94).

Near peers - those who admire egalitarian relationships between men and women but cannot figure out how to do it; both partners are likely to work, but the woman does much more child care and the man usually has veto power in a way the woman does not (Schwartz: 2 - 3). Also see traditional marriage, peer marriage.

Negative affectivity - a tendency to be anxious and emotionally labile (Huston & Houts, 1996: 5).

Neglect - a strategy for dealing with relationship dissatisfaction in which the partner actively allows the relationship to deteriorate. Ex: treating the partner poorly, ignoring the partner (Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991: 53 - 54); an ineffectual response adopted by a spouse who does not know what to do about a troubled relationship and is not motivated to do much of anything; more probable among males, older persons married for some time, and spouses with low self-esteem (Kayser, 1993: 12 - 13). See exit, loyalty.

Negotiated farewell [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution tactic that is high in directness and other-orientation; a clear, bilateral communication that formally ends the relationship (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk , attribution conflict , fait accompli, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away.

Networks - a social structure that connects relationships to the larger society (Surra, 1990: 850).

Non-marriage [Nye & Berardo] - see empty shell.

Objectification - a couple identifies the pattern of interaction as being an objective relationship; the relationship is viewed as having an objective, public existence, not merely an imputed or subjective existence (e.g., "His proposal didn't really change anything; it just confirmed what was already there") (Bolton, 1961: 177 - 178).

Operationalism - In contrast to essentialism, concepts in scientific theories must in some way be linked to observable events that can be measured; this makes the concept public, removing it from the feelings and intuitions of a particular individual, allowing it to be tested (and potentially falsified) by anyone who can carry out the measurable operation (Stanovich, 1996: 38).

Opportunity cost - possible waste of time, money, or thought on one effort that could be spent on something else (Stanovich, 1996: 66); represent the rewards available in other exchanges that were foregone as a result of participating in a particular relationship (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 398).

Other-orientation [Baxter] - in relationship dissolution, the degree to which the disengager attempts to avoid hurting the partner in the process of breaking up (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See fait accompli, state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away. Also see directness.

Parallel marriage [Bernard] - each partner lives primarily in a male or female world, and neither violates the boundaries of the other's world (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 315). [Levinger & Rands] - A high-compatibility, low-interdependence marriage (1985: 321). Also see interactional, conflict-habituated, and empty-shell.

Partner attributions - marital dissolution is attributed to characteristics of the partner. For example, "my spouse's selfishness / aggressiveness" (Kayser, 1993: 104). Also see extradyadic, self, and interactive attributions.

Peer marriage - partners evaluate their marriage according to the quality and type of time spent together, placing the marriage above their economic success (Schwartz, 126). Tend to be characterized by: a relatively equal split of household duties and child-rearing; equal influence over important and disputed decisions; equal control over the family economy and access to discretionary funds; each person's work is given equal weight in the couple's life plans (Schwartz, 4).

Perpetual problems model - suggests that the interplay between the partners' dispositions gets played out during courtship and that, as a consequence, the partners develop feelings and views about each other that reflect the underlying, relatively psychological infrastructure of the relationship (Huston & Houts, 1996: 2). Also see disillusionment, accommodation model.

Personal Attributes Questionnaire [Spence et al] - self-report measure of expressivity and instrumentality (Huston & Geis, 1993: 91).

Personal commitment - feeling that one wants to continue the relationship; flows from attitude toward both the partner and the relationship, as well as relational identity (Johnson, 1991: 119, 120). Also called marital quality variables (Lewis & Spanier). Also see moral & structural commitment.

Personality meshing - a relationship development process characterized by a mutual perception of personality "fit." Couples tend to be homogamous in background and values but complementary in personality needs and organization. Attraction is felt early. This pattern corresponds fairly closely to romantic expectations (Bolton, 1961: 174). Also see identity clarification, relations centered , pressure and intrapersonal centered, and expediency centered processes.

Placebo effect - the tendency of people to report that any treatment has helped them, regardless of whether or not it has a real therapeutic element (Stanovich, 1996: 51).

Polarized couple - two spouses who are at quite different points in the disaffection process (Kayser, 1993: 16).

Postcommitment phase - commences when the parties become certain and remain relatively sure that the event (eg, marriage) will occur. As the likelihood of the event increases, the voluntariness of the transition decreases (Surra & Huston, 1987: 95).

Precommitment phase - preparatory stage of a transition (eg, to marriage), initially marked by a "feeling of freedom - the activity can be dropped with no great effort of will" (Ryder, 1971); sometimes later marked by a period of overt or covert resistance (Surra & Huston, 1987: 94).

Preexisting bias - people come into the social sciences with emotional beliefs and intuitive theories about the nature of people and society, and may be resistant to an operational and testable approach to human behavior (Stanovich, 1996: 42).

Premarital dyadic formation framework [Lewis] - a stage model of courtship based on six sequential processes: perceiving similarities, achieving pair rapport, inducing self-disclosure, role-taking, achieving interpersonal role-fit, and achieving dyadic crystallization (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 41 - 43).

Preserving indirectness [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory characterized by a unilateral decision to terminate the relationship, use of an indirect dissolution strategy that was resisted by the partner, with no attempts at reconciliation (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See critical features of dissolution.

Pressure and intrapersonal centered - a relationship development process in which the partners are similar and traditional in background, and both dislike conflict, but their personalities decidedly do not mesh. The marked lack of congruity of definitions is met by fantasy and tactical maneuvering (Bolton, 1961: 175 - 176). Also see personality meshing, identity clarification, relation centered , and expediency centered processes.

Principle of least interest - asymmetry in dependence sets the stage for the less dependent person to exercise more influence in the relationship (see Kelley, 1979: 45), set the terms of the relationship, and to negotiate the common agenda (McCall & Simmons, 1978: 187).

Probabilistic trend - a relationship between factors holds true for the population in general, but does not hold true for every specific person (Stanovich, 1996: 133).

Progressive-stage models - courtship processes including filter theory [Kerckhoff & Davis], Stimulus-Value-Role theory [Murstein], and Premarital Dyadic Formation theory [Lewis] (Surra, 1990: 859).

Prolonged courtship - a slow, up-and-down progression to marriage, characterized by high levels of conflict and ambivalence (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 48). See interpersonal process model. Also see accelerated, accelerated-arrested, and intermediate courtship.

Prolonged-smooth relationships - most enduring premarital relationships with the highest rates of commitment to marriage; dissolution phase is quite gradual (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 93). Also see low-level, moderate, prolonged-turbulent, and accelerated relationships.

Prolonged-turbulent relationships - Characterized by a protracted period of ambivalence, often involving multiple breakups (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 94). Also see low-level, moderate, prolonged-smooth, and accelerated relationships.

Provider role - gives the man the responsibility for financially supporting the family's life-style and the woman all the auxiliary duties that allow the man to devote himself to his work (Schwartz: 111) As decision making correlates with income (Schwartz: 112), the provider role tends to create a climate of inequality in the marriage.

Proximity - closeness of spatial location of another person relative to the self; fundamental if a relationship is to develop. Provides the opportunity for social interaction but does not determine the quality of those interactions (Brehm, 1992: 62). Also see environmental spoiling.

Pseudodeescalation [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution strategy that is low in directness and high in other-orientation; one or both partners state that they want the relationship to be less close or intense (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, fait accompli, cost-escalation, fading away.

Reactance theory - when a person's specific freedom is threatened or taken away, the person should become motivated to reestablish the freedom; thus, barriers to relationships could increase attraction (Brehm, 1992: 84). See Romeo and Juliet effect.

Recipe knowledge - the knowledge of how to use something, without understanding its fundamental principles (Stanovich, 1996: 177).

Reciprocity - tendency for couples to reward each other at approximately equal rates; as far as punishing stimuli are concerned, reciprocity seems to hold only for distressed couples (Jacobson & Margolin, 1979: 15).

Relation centered - a relationship development process in which partners concentrate on building up images of each other. Personalities do not spontaneously mesh; their "fit" remains in doubt; adjustments, shared understandings, and commitments are consciously built up, though they may not have much depth (Bolton, 1961: 175). Also see personality meshing, identity clarification, pressure and intrapersonal centered, and expediency centered processes.

Relational efficacy - a couple's confidence that they can weather conflict together (Kayser, 1993: 14).

Relational identity - the extent to which one's involvement in a relationship is incorporated into one's self-concept (Johnson, 1991: 120).

Relationship development - all phases and / or stages of relationships: per existing frameworks, follows this course: individual males and females bring a set of stable personal dispositions to potential relationships; these are fully and honestly displayed; mates are selected for compatibility of disposition; once married, mates work out an arrangement of instrumental activities; the success of this determines marital satisfaction; this shapes leisure and companionship (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 203).

Relationship driven commitment - based in interpersonal attributions; associated with moderate changes in commitment that occurred over longer periods of time (Surra & Bohman, 1991: 297); changes in commitment are based upon reasons that more closely resembles rational choice processes believed to be important for marital success; tied to attributions that concern spending time together, getting to know one another, and disclosing information to one another. Moderate changes in commitment are generally expected. Associated with higher levels of marital happiness (Surra, 1990: 856). Also see event-driven courtship.

Relationship stability - tendency to remain in the same relationship over time: relationships characterized by high satisfaction, poor alternatives, high intrinsic investments, and by individual differences in the tendency to become invested may retain the greatest stability (Simpson, 1987: 690).

Rewards - pleasures, satisfactions, and gratifications the person enjoys (Thibaut & Kelley) derived from participating in a relationship (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 397; Mills and Clark, 1994: 30).

Role conflict - in performing a role, the same response brings both reward and punishment. For example, a strongly religious wife who meets her husband's expectations about going skiing with him on Sunday may violate her expectations she and others may hold about her role as church member; a wife may discover that her husband, mother, and mother-in-law each have differing expectations as to how she should perform her wife's role (Dyer, 1962: 233).

Role strain - conflict or stress that may result from the dual demands of work and family (i.e., Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: p.1088).

Role theory - a more structured version of symbolic interactionism, in which behavior follows role expectations, versus role expectations following behavior (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 142); regards individuals as filling slots and enacting required behaviors regardless of their individual wants (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 174); uses the concept of sex role to explain everything from the structural disadvantages of women to differing personality traits of men and women (Lopata & Thorne). Assumes a certain packaging of structures, behaviors, and attitudes for each sex. Identifies families as the primary focus of women's oppression; sex roles acquired there "spill over" into the labor market or educational system. Thus it explains conformity as the result of sanctions applied by other individuals; its central focus is on individual socialization rather than social structures. Critique: "fails to place family relationships in this wider structural context in which family ties support or undercut resistance to specific social arrangements" (Ferree, 1990: 867-868). Also see gender theory.

Roles - shared norms applied to the occupants of social positions; enable role occupants and others with whom they interact to anticipate future behaviors and maintain regularity in their social interactions. Specify knowledge, ability, motivation, and expectations about the extent, direction, and duration of feelings and emotions. Can be best understood in relation to complementary or counterroles (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 147).

Romeo and Juliet effect - parental interference and romantic involvement are positively related; this finding has not ben well replicated, occurring only for the partner's family and for slight opposition from the family [Parks] (Surra, 1990: 852). See reactance theory.

Sanctions - rewards or punishments administered by one person to another to the degree that the other person meets or fails to meet role expectations (Dyer, 1962: 229); actions used by the social network that censure or approve the relationship, and encourage partners to behave in ways that are consistent with their norms (Surra & Milardo, 1991: 28).

Second shift [Hochschild] - the extra month of labor per year needed to maintain the household. Divided between men and women according to gender strategies (Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: 1088); women work in and out of the home an average of fifteen hours more than men each week (Thorne, 1992: 18). Also called leisure gap.

Selection bias - choosing a sample from a certain environment that may be non-representative of the population you wish to generalize about; often results when the sample group possesses certain biological, behavioral, and psychological characteristics that cause them to select a certain environment (Stanovich, 1996: 75).

Self attributions - marital dissolution is attributed to characteristics of the self. For example, "my own selfishness / lack of self-disclosure" (Kayser, 1993: 104). Also see extradyadic, partner, and interactive attributions.

Self-fulfilling prophecy - spouses' level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction may provide a psychological environment that elicits behavior from the partner that reinforces their own initial attitude (Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 723).

Self-monitoring - a personality trait, concerned with people's tendency to regulate their social behavior to meet the demands of social situations (Brehm, 1992: 69).

Sentiment override - tendency of spouses to interpret each other's behavior to be consistent with their subjective assessments of their relationships but inconsistent with the way an objective outsider would interpret behaviors (Surra & Bohman, 1991: 301).

Sex ratio - the balance between numbers of men and women of marriageable age. For example, number of men for every 100 women in a population [Guttentag & Secord]; ratio of the number of unmarried men of marriageable age to unmarried women of marriageable age [Heer & Grossbard-Shectman](Surra, 1990: 847).

Sex role - presumed to be internalized early in life through family socialization and expressed by individuals in a variety of social settings (Ferree, 1990: 867). See role theory.

Slope of rewards - a person may be attracted to a particular person not so much because previous attraction has been notably profitable, but because the profits have been steadily increasing with time (Huston & Cate, 1979: 267).

Social exchange framework - view social relationships as an extended "markets" in which each individual acts out of self interest with the goal of maximizing interests (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 385).

Social exchange theory - from Thibaut & Kelley's (1959) theory of interdependence: "a bartering of rewards and costs both between the partners and between members of the partnership and others (Huston & Burgess, 1979: 4)"; satisfaction is each individual's weighing and perception of Levinger's attractions, barriers and alternatives. Focus is intrapersonal (Karney & Bradbury, 1995: 4); like social learning and symbolic interactionism, is concerned with the regulatory implications of the affective consequences of behavior; however, also believes that participants in relationships are not simply reacting to the pattern of affect that results from interaction, but also that each participant has goals for both self and other, and that each is able to anticipate the consequences with regard to goals of various combinations of behavior (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 172); views love as the product of a long history of interaction: affection, caring, trust, dependency, which are interpersonally based - but it must also be rational and self-satisfying (Huston & Cate, 1979: 264). Recognizes that patterns of behavior within relationships are related to the way in which the partners participate in the larger culture. For example, relative economic resources and social status may affect the balance of power in the relationship (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 173). [leisure] - focuses on how power, resources, networks, and dependency may affect how conflicts regarding companionate activities are resolved (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 199; also see Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 721).

Social learning theory - suggests that attitudes (such as satisfaction) and behavior (such as punishing and rewarding events) are connected such that each spouse's behavior both influences the attitude of the partner and reflects his or her own attitude (Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 721,723). [leisure] - views attraction toward or away from leisure with the partner as caused by a more general attraction toward or aversion from the partner (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 199). [gender] - like symbolic interactionism, believes that dispositions to act in particular ways develop as a consequence of the kinds of behaviors that have been modeled and reinforced through social rewards (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 172).

Social network - a collection of individuals known by a target person (Surra & Milardo, 1991: 3). 148).

Sociobiology - argues that humans evolved in ways that tend to maximize the likelihood that their individual genes will survive. Men have a biological stake in having sexual relationships whenever they have a chance, while trying to control the availability of their sex partner to others. Women must select the best possible mate in terms of genetic makeup, and maximize the likelihood that their offspring will survive to maturity (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 170).

Socioemotional behavior - may be broken into several different factors: e.g., "negative behaviors," "positive behaviors," and "sexual involvement" (Huston & Vangelisti, 1991: 723).

Spontaneous remission - recovery due to a combination of placebo effects and mere passage of time (Stanovich, 1996: 52).

Spurious correlation - correlations without a causal link between the two factors, usually because both variables are related to a third factor (Stanovich, 1996: 72).

Stable-unsatisfactory marriage [Lederer & Jackson] - see empty-shell.

Stage models of courtship - portray the selection of a mate as proceeding through a sequential series of stages, with each stage focusing on certain processes in decision-making concerning a possible marriage mate. Assume that premarital relationships are highly intimate; concentrate on partners' individual characteristics, with little consideration of partner interaction or external factors. Some lack a rationale for the progression of stages or sequences in the model (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 36, 43 - 45). See wheel theory, filter theory, stimulus-value-role model, premarital dyadic formation framework. Also see compatibility models , interpersonal process model.

State-of-the-relationship talk [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution tactic that is high in directness and other-orientation; the disengager states a desire to breakup in the context of a conversation about relationship problems (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See fait accompli, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, withdrawal, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away.

Stimulus-value-role model [Murstein] - a stage model of courtship assuming that attraction stems from equality of exchange of the assets and liabilities of each partner; individuals consider potential partners on the basis of: (1) stimulus characteristics such as physical attractiveness; (2) degree of congruence in value-related areas; and (3) compatibility of roles that each partner will play in the continuing relationship (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 39 - 40; Surra, 1990: 860).

Stressful events - developmental transitions, situations, incidents, and chronic or acute circumstances that spouses encounter (Karney & Bradbury, 1995: 22).

Structural commitment - feeling that one has to continue the relationship; derives from irretrievable investment, social reaction, difficulty of termination procedures, and availability of acceptable alternatives (Johnson, 1991: 119 - 123). With moral commitment, also called threshold variables (Lewis & Spanier). Also see personal commitment.

Structural interpersonal conflict - preferences of two people diverge. Gives rise to intrapersonal conflict when one is uncertain whether to press for the fulfillment of one's own preferences, at the risk of open dynamic interpersonal conflict, or to recognize and comply with the partner's preferences (Braiker & Kelley, 1979: 160).

Structuralism - theory positing that the behavior of individuals in social relationships emerges in response to the demands and needs of the social system (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 386).

Subjective conditions - see interpersonal dispositions.

Subjective inferences - investigators ask participants themselves to explain (e.g., the decision processes involved in making a social transition, like the steps toward marriage). (Surra & Huston, 1987: 96).

Summary affect statements - require respondents to sum over a number of emotional experiences in order to arrive at a statement of their general affective experience within the relationship (such as "Overall, how satisfied are you with your marriage, on a scale from one to nine?"). Sometimes problematic; for example, the respondent may arrive at a neutral index that is actually composed of both strong positive and negative affect (for example, "Well, I love all of his good qualities, but I hate that I never get to see him, so I'll say our marriage is a five") (Berscheid, 1985: 116).

Swift implicit mutuality [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory characterized by bilateral desire to end the relationship, an indirect approach, and swift termination (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See critical features of dissolution.

Swift explicit mutuality [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory characterized by bilateral desire to end the relationship, a direct approach, and swift termination (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 91). See critical features of dissolution.

Swift indirectness [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution trajectory involving a unilateral and indirect approach and resulting in the termination of the relationship on the first attempt (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 92).

Symbolic exchange [Stephen] - integrates social exchange theory with symbolic interactionism; follows the assumptions of incremental convergence and divergence. Assumes that the development of a relationship involves partners' constructing a shared world view, built primarily through communication (Surra, 1990: 859).

Symbolic interactionism - focuses on the importance of meaning in human behavior, the social and active role taken in the development and importance of self concept by the individual, and the relationship between the individual and society. Major founders: Cooley, Mead, Thomas. Major concepts: identities, roles, interactions, contexts (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993). [gender] - through socialization men and women develop identities that differ in the way that they view themselves in relation to others; like social learning theory, believes that dispositions to act in particular ways develop as a consequence of the kinds of behaviors that have been modeled and reinforced through social rewards (Huston & Ashmore, 1986: 171 -172).

Talk table - technique in which partners placed opposite one another rate the positivity of messages received during interaction (Surra, 1990: 854).

Territorialization - the taking and governing of separate spheres of interest in a marriage; tends to spread when children arrive (Schwartz, 9).

Theory - an interrelated set of concepts used to explain a body of events and make predictions about the results of future experiments (Stanovich, 1996: 22).

Third-variable problem - the correlation between two variables may be related to a third variable that has not been measured (Stanovich, 1996: 72).

Thomas theorem - If people define situations as real, they will be real in their consequences. For example, attributing malicious intent to a crying infant increases the likelihood that the infant will be hit by the parent (LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993: 140).

Traditional marriage - male and female roles are divided into separate spheres of influences and authority, with final authority given to the husband (Schwartz: 2).

Transition event - for marriage, is usually accompanied by ritual and ceremony which serve to celebrate the event, commit persons to the transition, and assist in the alteration of group membership (Surra & Huston, 1987: 95)

Trust - in a close relationship, reflects confident expectations of positive outcomes from an intimate partner (Holmes & Rempel, 1989: 188). May be recognized by the absence of active appraisal in the normal course of events (Holmes, 1989); the belief that the partner will not exploit or take unfair advantage of the self in any way; may allow individuals to be less calculative and seek longer-term outcomes (Sabatelli & Shehan, 1993: 404); willingness to place oneself in a position of risk; an expectancy that the word, promise, or statement of another can be relied upon (Rotter); extent to which one partner believes the other to be benevolent and honest (Larzelere & Huston); feelings of confidence and security in the caring response of the partner and the strength of the relationship. Best correlated with faith (Rempel, Holmes, & Zanna, 1985: 95 - 96).

Unmutual togetherness - occurs when husbands and wives do not agree on when they were together. For example, a woman cooking dinner in the kitchen reported being with her husband, while the husband reported being alone watching TV in the next room (Larson & Richards, 1994: 109).

Validation - acceptance in response to one member's complaint or expressed difficulty (Levinger & Rands, 1985: 327).

Vigilance - in order to avoid further hurt, persons may become more sensitive to the potential hurtful actions of others and be less sensitive to the positive actions of others [Berger & Roloff] (Kayser, 1993: 52). Also see figure-ground.

Vividness effect - people retrieve from memory information that seems relevant and is accessible; vividness (such as personal testimony) makes information much more accessible, so that it may overshadow information of much higher reliability (such as national surveys or other statistical data). "Attitudes about crime are strongly affected by particularly salient cases and by what is vividly presented on television, rather than by actual statistical facts" (Stanovich, 1996: 54).

Voice - a strategy for dealing with relationship dissatisfaction in which the partner actively and constructively attempts to improve conditions. Ex: discussing problems, changing oneself, seeking help from third party (Rusbult, Verette, Whitney, Slovik, & Lipkus, 1991: 53).

Wheel theory [Reiss] - a stage model of courtship positing that there are four stages or processes for a couple on the way to marriage: rapport, self-revelation, mutual dependency, and intimacy need fulfillment (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 37).

Withdrawal [Baxter] - a relationship dissolution strategy that is low in directness and other-orientation; the disengager spends less time with the partner or avoids contact (Cate & Lloyd, 1992: 90). See state-of-the-relationship talk, attribution conflict, negotiated farewell, fait accompli, pseudodeescalation, cost-escalation, fading away.

Withdrawal Integration hypothesis - posits that partners withdraw from the social network as they become more involved with one another, due to limited supply of emotional energy, attempts to solidify their coupleness and form dyadic boundaries, and a lack of time and attention for extradyadic concerns. Couples should also become reintegrated into the network as they get less involved with one another (Surra, 1990: 850).

Work socialization - the complexity and opportunities for self-direction that a job may provide have a direct relationship with the development of intellectual capabilities and flexibility, as well as self-esteem, self-efficacy, and personal control (Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: 1089 - 1090).

Work-family role conflict - wives are more likely to desire employment outside the home, whereas their husbands may argue that the needs of the children as well as their own needs should come first. Potential conflict is diminished in this area if sex segregation functions at work and home (such that changes in work roles for women do not occur at the expense of men) and asymmetrical effects (with family intruding into work life for women, and work intruding into the family for men) (Menaghan & Parcel, 1990: p.1086).

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