Phl 303
Lecture 6: Aquinas's Conception of Human Nature

Today's Lecture: Aquinas on Happiness

I. The Existence of Happiness: Question 1

II. What Happiness is Not: Question 2

III. The Nature of Happiness: Question 3

IV. Introduction to Joseph Butler

I. The Existence of Happiness

Question 1:
Human action has a single, ultimate end that is shared by all people. This end we call "happiness".

Key Articles:

1. Human action has an end (purpose).
3.Human action has an ultimate end.
4. Human action has a single ultimate end.
7. This end is shared by all people.

Article 1: Human action has an end.

An action is human not just because it is performed by a a human being: it must involve the exercise of peculiarly human powers.

These peculiarly human powers are the reason and the will.

The object of the will is called an "end".

Hence, all properly human actions are performed for an end.

Article 3: All human action has an ultimate end.

Suppose that a human action ocurred for an end (by article 1), but not for any ultimate end.

This would mean that every end for which the action is performed is itself merely the means for some further end.

This would mean that the human action was performed for the sake of an infinite regress of reasons.

An infinite regress of reasons cannot move the will to action (basic metaphysical principle).

Hence, every human action is performed for some ultimate end.

Article 4: all human action is performed for a single ultimate end.

3 arguments are given (in Response, pp. 10-11):

1. Every thing desires nothing but its own complete fulfillment.

   The ultimate end of any action is that thing which would satisfy every desire.

   Hence, there is but one ultimate end of human action (i.e., the complete fulfillment of human nature).

2. The fundamental principle of human life is the will.

   The fundamental principle of every kind of thing is tends toward a single thing (since, otherwise, the individual members of this kind would not be unified as substances)>

   Hence, the human will tends toward a single thing.

   The human will tends toward the ultimate ends of human action.

   Hence, human action has only one ultimate end.

3. Human actions are classified into species according to their ends (article 3).

   Therefore, things belong to the genus human action by virtue of their sharing a common end or purpose.

   Therefore, all human actions have the same ultimate end.

II. What Happiness is Not: Question 2

Happiness is not Power (4th article)

2 reasons:

1. power is a means, but happiness is an ultimate end.
2. power can be used for good ends and for bad ones. Therefore, power by itself is not sufficient for happiness.

Happiness is not Pleasure (6th article)

Distinction: bodily delight (pleasure) and intellectual delight.

Even delight is not the same thing as happiness: it is rather the result or symptom of happiness.

Moreover, bodily delight is even more clearly not happiness, since humans have a rational soul, whose existence does not depend on the body.

In addition, this rational soul is of greater value than the body, since it is capable of knowing an infinity of things (through knowing universals), while the body is finite in its capacities.

For these 2 reasons, Aquinas concludes that the body exists for the sake of the soul, not the soul for the body.

The superiority of the useless over the useful: friendship, philosophy, art, sport, as opposed to money-making or other necessary activities.

Very topical debate: contrast:

• E. O. Wilson, Consilience (everything, including morality, religion and science, exists for the sake of biological values -- survival and reproduction of genes).
• Michael Denton, Nature's Destiny (everything, including the whole biological realm, exists for the sake of human intellectual and spiritual activities)

Happiness does not Consist in any created good. (article 8)

The ultimate end must bring human desire to rest.

Human desire (in its rational aspect, i.e., the will) cannot be brought to rest by anything finite or limited.

Any created good is finite and limited.

Hence, happiness does not consist in any created good.

III. What Happiness Consists in (Question 3)

In a nutshell: perfect happiness consists in the perfect speculative knowledge of God's essence (the "beatific vision").

Imperfect (earthly) happiness consists in the full range of activities that Aristotle would have described as "eudaemonia".

1. Happiness is an activity. (article 2)
2. Perfect happiness is an activity of the intellect, not the senses or the will (article 3, 4)
3. Perfect happiness is an activity of the "speculative", rather than the "practical", intellect. (article 5)
4. Perfect happiness consists in the knowledge of God, not of the material world (articles 6, 8)

IV. Introduction to Joseph Butler

Sermons, published in 1726.

Had profound effect on moral philosophy in Britain, well into 20th century.

2 major themes:

1. Nature is the standard of good/bad, right/wrong.
2. The problem of the relation between self-love and love for others.

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