Phl 303
Human Nature

Prof. R. Koons -- Spring 2005

TuTh 9:30 am; GSB 2.124

PAPER TOPICS

1-2. PLATO & ARISTOTLE (Due Jan. 25)

Choose one of the following questions on Plato's Gorgias, plus one of the question on Aristotle's philosophy.

PLATO'S GORGIAS

  1. What was Socrates' method? Whose opinion mattered?
  2. Explain why the analogy between physical health and spiritual health is so fundamental for Plato. What does this analogy presuppose about the mind or soul?
  3. Explain Plato's distinction between doing what one wills and doing what one pleases. Why is this distinction important?
  4. Why, in the end, are virtuous people the happiest, according to Plato?

ARISTOTLE

  1. What, according to Aristotle, does happiness consist in? What is the relationship between virtue and happiness? What, besides virtue, is required for happiness, and why?
  2. What is the relationship between pleasure and happiness?
  3. What is the highest and most important of all human functions, according to Aristotle?
  4. What is the nature of moral virtue, according to Aristotle? Why is virtue necessary?
  5. What criterion does Aristotle use in deciding which constitution is best? Why?

3. HEBREW SCRIPTURES & BOETHIUS (Feb. 1)


Pick one question from the section on the Hebrew Scriptures (Bible) and one from the section on Boethius. (Due Wed., Sept. 8)

HEBREW SCRIPTURES

  1. Explain how each of these ideas affects the Biblical view of human nature: Creation, Fall, Redemption.
  2. What are some of the more significant elements shared by the views of Plato, Aristotle and the Bible?
  3. How does the Biblical story enhance the significance of human individuality (in contrast to the views of Plato and Arisotle)? What are the roots of the idea of human equality (in contrast to the elitism of Plato and Aristotle) in the biblical account?
  4. What is the biblical conception of human evil, and how does it differ from that of Plato or Aristotle? Is the Biblical view dualistic (involving a cosmic battle between two equal and opposite forces)? Why or why not?

BOETHIUS

  1. How does Boethius' book as a whole reflect a distinction between philosophy and Christian theology?
  2. What in Boethius's philosophy does he borrow from Plato and Aristotle? What comes to him from the biblical tradition?
  3. Why does Boethius identify happiness with a kind of participation in God? Why are all finite goods inadequate?

4. THOMAS AQUINAS (Feb. 8)

Pick one or two of the following questions.

  1. What is an "end"? What is an "ultimate end"? What ultimate end do all humans share? Distinguish between the object of the will and the possession or use of that object. (Treatise on Happiness, Question 1)
  2. How does Aquinas prove that all human action is directed toward the same ultimate end? (TH,Question 1, Article 4)
  3. How is it that humans lead such different kinds of lives, if they are all seeking the same ultimate end? (See TH, Question V, Art. 8)
  4. How does Aquinas go about determining what happiness consists in? What tests does he use? What conclusion does he reach? (TH, Question II, Art. 8; Question III, Art. 8) Compare Aquinas's method and conclusion with those of Boethius.
  5. How does Aquinas prove that happiness does not consist of any good or pleasure of the body (Question III, Articles 5 and 6)? What does this say about Aquinas' view of the relationship between soul and body? (Be careful -- compare what Aquinas says in Question IV, Articles 5 and 6 about the resurrection.)
  6. What does it mean to say that happiness consists in an activity? (TH, Question III, Art. 2) Why must it be an activity of the intellect?
  7. How and why does Aquinas distinguish between perfect and imperfect happiness? (TH, Question III, Art. 2 & Art. 6; Question V, Art. 3) Relate this distinction to the distinction between faith and reason, and between the supernatural and the natural.

5. DANTE & JOSEPH BUTLER (Feb. 15)

Pick one question from Dante and one from Butler (due February 15):

Dante’Äôs Divine Comedy

1. What is Dante's view of the relationship between natural reason (as represented by the philosophers in limbo) and faith?  How does it compare with Aquinas's view?

2. What does Dante mean by "love" (as described by Virgil in cantos xvii and xviii of the Purgatorio)?  What is the relationship between Dante's "love" and "desire" in Aquinas's system? How can love be the source of both good and evil actions? Is explanation of human action in terms of loves and desires compatible with the idea of free will?

3. How does Dante (through the figures of Marco and Virgil in the Purgatorio) attempt to reconcile free will with the existence of natural laws and causal necessities (understood in Dante's time as astrological)?  What is the ultimate source of evil -- bad choices, bad environment, the structure of human nature?

4.  How, according to Dante, does the human soul come into being (see Statius's discources in canto xxv of the Purgatorio)?  How is it connected to the body?  What does Dante think of the view of Averroes (ibn Rushd), according to which there is a single rational soul shared by all human beings?

Butler’Äôs Sermons on Human Nature

  1. Butler distinguishes between several senses of "human nature". What sense must we use if we want a standard for good/bad, right/wrong? (Sermon II) What is the distinction for Butler between the power of a drive and its authority?
  2. Hedonism is the thesis that pleasure is our sole ultimate end. How does Butler seek to refute hedonism? (Sermon III, par. 7).
  3. Why are we obliged to follow our consciences? Why wouldn't we be better off if we could silence the voice of conscience within us?
  4. Is self-love the only desire or motivation we have? (Sermon III, par. 7 & 8) In what sense is happiness the sole ultimate goal of every person? In what sense is it not the only ultimate goal? What is the role of "particular affections"? Why are they necessary?
  5. What danger to our happiness is there in an excessive concern for it? (Sermon III, par. 9)
  6. Is there any necessary conflict between self-love and love for others? (Sermon III, par. 11--par. 17) Can the two come into conflict? (par. 18)

6-7. Transition to Modern World (March 1)

Choose two of the following questions, on two different authors. (Due March 1)

MACHIAVELLI

  1. Why does Machiavelli think that the bond of fear is more powerful than the bond of love or friendship? (59-60) How can the prince succeed in being feared without being hated? How does Machiavelli's conception of statesmanship differ from Aristotle's?
  2. What does Machiavelli mean by "free will" and by "fortune"? Is it possible to avoid the effects of fortune altogether? Why or why not? What "virtues" does Machiavelli recommend to the prince, based upon his theory of fortune? How does Machiavelli's conception of virtue differ from Aristotle's? (pp. 84-86)

BACON

  1. According to Bacon, what is the purpose of the acquisition of knowledge? Compare with Plato, Aristotle and Aquinas. (p. 90) What is Bacon's attitude toward magic? (pp. 90, 101)
  2. To what extent does Bacon agree with Plato's theory of the Ideas or Forms? How do they disagree? (pp. 93-97, 127)
  3. How important is the discovery of final causes (teleology, purpose in nature) in Bacon's philosophy? (p. 97) Explain.

HOBBES

¬…  How does Hobbes define 'good' and 'evil'? How are these similar to the so-called secondary qualities (color, smell, etc.)?

¬…  What is Hobbes' theory of the will? What possible motives for action are there? What are the similarities and differences between Hobbes' theory of motivation and that of Aquinas?

¬…  What is the "state of nature" in Hobbes' sense? Does justice or injustice exist in the state of nature? Why or why not? Would Hobbes agree with Aristotle that man is a "social" or "political animal"? Discuss.

BABBITT

  1. What is Babbitt's distinction between humanism and humanitarianism? (p. 73, pp. 88-9) What are the two types of humanitarianism?
  2. What does Babbitt mean by "sympathy" and "selectivity"? How should they be related? How is the modern world out of balance?
  3. Why does humanitarianism ocillate between anarchic individualism and utopian collectivism, according to Babbitt?
  4. What connection does Babbitt see between Bacon's philosophy and his character? (p. 92-3) How does the Baconian philosophy lead to overspecialization?
  5. What does Babbitt mean in accusing Rousseau of replacing the law for man or the law of measure with "moral impressionism"? (p. 83, 95-9, 106)

WEAVER

  1. What is nominalism? How, according to Weaver, does nominalism elevate the senses over the intellect? What connection does Weaver see between Ockham and modern relativism?
  2. How does the modern conception of nature differ from that of Plato and Aristotle? How does this lead to a different conception of science?
  3. Why does modern science, beginning with Francis Bacon, look to the domination of nature as its primary function?
  4. Trace the evolution, as Weaver paints it, of Western culture through the following phases: nominalism, naturalism, rationalism, deism, materialism, economism, psychological behaviorism.
  5. What dangers does Weaver see in our immersion in a "staggering number of facts"? (p. 14) How does Weaver distinguish between facts and truths?

8. Mill and Darwin (due March 8)

Choose two of the following topics, one on Mill and one on Darwin.

MILL

  1. What definitions of "nature" does Mill consider? Where does Mill discuss the teleological conception of nature (Nature = what fulfills a things natural functions)?
  2. Why does Mill think that we cannot read off God's intentions through an inspection of nature?
  3. What are Mill's principal targets in "Nature"? Whom is he arguing against?
  4. How does Mill attempt to show that human nature itself is need of reform or repair? How might Aristotle, Butler or Rousseau respond to Mill's arguments?
  5. What is the basis of moral judgment for Mill? What are the consequences for the science of nature and for morality in accepting Mill's claim that there is an unbridgeable gap between them?

DARWIN

  1. Why does Darwin try to minimize the difference between humans and other animals on the topic of the moral sense? Is this downplaying of qualitative differences essential to defending the theory of evolution?
  2. What is the cause of the moral sense, according to Darwin? How reliable is this sense, i.e., does it reliably produce a "high" standard of morality?
  3. Why does Darwin think that humankind is in a constant state of flux? What are some of the implications of such a view? How does it call into question the unity of the human race?
  4. How does Darwin apply the ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest to humans and their history? Are his conclusions reasonable, given his starting point?

9. B. F. Skinner (due March 22)

Choose two of the following topics on the selections from B. F. Skinner's Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971).

  1. What does Skinner mean by positive and negative "reinforcers"? Why doesn't Skinner speak of pleasure and pain?
  2. Why does Skinner think we should exclude final and formal explanations from psychology? What are the implications of doing so? Why does Skinner reject the reality of beliefs, desires, drives, purposes and other mental states?
  3. Why is there no significant distinction for Skinner between persuasion and manipulation, or between guidance and coercion?
  4. What is Skinner's definition of "good"? How does this lead to radical relativism?
  5. Who controls the controllers? Can Skinner consistently give guidance or try to impose moral constraints on the controllers? Why or why not?
  6. Does Skinner make sense when he makes the "survival our culture" the ultimate criterion for the wise use of behavior control? What is a "culture", according to Skinner? Is there any reason to think that all humans are under some sort of compulsion to promote the survival of their culture or their species?

10. C. S. Lewis (due March 29)

Choose two of the following topics on The Abolition of Man.

  1. What is the Tao? What is Lewis's model of how we come to know the Tao? What are the similarities and differences between Lewis's model and that of Aristotle or Aquinas?
  2. What is the emotive theory of value? What is Lewis's main argument against it?
  3. What does Lewis see as the implications of the rejection of objective values for education and government?
  4. Why does Lewis think that ethics cannot be grounded in instinct?
  5. Why does Lewis think that ethical innovation is impossible? Is he right? What does he think ethical innovators are really doing?
  6. What dilemma does the Conditioner face? Why must the Conditioner be amoral?
  7. What is the point of the Appendix ("Illustrations of the Tao")? Does it succeed?

11. E. O. Wilson (due April 7)

Choose two of the following topics on Wilson's On Human Nature.

  1. What is Wilson's view of the relationship between biology and culture? Do our genes completely determine our behavior? If not, what do they do?
  2. What is the difference between hard-core and soft-core altruism? How does sociobiology explain each of these? Explain the difference between kin selection and reciprocal altruism.
  3. What is Wilson's explanation of the origin and durability of the nuclear family?
  4. Is there a single, general-purpose instinct for aggression? How does sociobiology explain differences in aggression between different species?

12. Feminism (due April 12)

Choose two of the following questions, on two different authors.

VIRGINIA WOOLF, THREE GUINEAS

  1. How and why is Woolf ambivalent about women's participation in higher education, the professions and politics? What is her solution to the dilemma she perceives?
  2. Does Woolf believe in the objectivity of value? What sources of knowledge about values does she acknowledge?
  3. How deep, according to Woolf, do the differences between men and women run? What are the implications for these differences with respect to the ideal form of society?

SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR, "CONCLUSION", THE SECOND SEX

  1. Why is it crucial for de Beauvoir that the distinction between man and women is entirely a contingent construction of society?
  2. What does de Beauvoir mean by "immanence" and "transcendence"? How does humanity transcend nature?

THOMAS FLEMING, "MALE AND FEMALE...", THE POLITICS OF HUMAN NATURE

  1. How does Fleming explain behavioral differences between the sexes? In what sense do males and females have different 'investments' in their offspring? Why are the reproductive strategies of males and females necessarily different?
  2. How does Fleming explain the origin and universality of the nuclear family?

13. THEOLOGICAL ACCOUNTS OF EVIL (due April 19)

Choose two of the following questions, on two different authors.

NEW TESTAMENT (Sermon on the Mount, Romans 1-4, I Corinthians 3)

  1. What are some of the consequences of the radically high standard for conduct that Jesus articulates in the Sermon on the Mount? Can there be any harmony between Jesus' teachings and the Aristotelian conception of eudaemonia?
  2. Exactly how deep is the corruption of human nature, according to Paul's account of it in Romans and First Corinthians? Are individual human beings responsible for their sinful actions? Are the ideas of universal sinfulness and individual responsibility consistent?

IMMANUEL KANT

  1. What does Kant mean by "radical evil"? Is it a necessary characteristic of humans?
  2. What is the source of radical evil? Why can it be neither the corruption of our reason nor the temptations of our sensuous nature?
  3. What is Kant's attitude toward the theological theory that we have inherited a tendency toward sin from Adam?

SOREN KIERKEGAARD

  1. Explain the distinction between the Recollection model of gaining the truth (the Socratic approach) and Kierkegaard's model of "The Moment". How does Kierkegaard's model lead to the conclusion that we are radically sinful and in need of salvation?
  2. What is Kierkegaard's account of the origin or cause of sin? Is it our fault that we are sinful, or is it merely a phase we must pass through (or both, somehow)?

REINHOLD NIEBUHR

  1. Why does Niebuhr object to any attempt to derive evil from specific historical sources (e.g., institutions, like property, religion or the state)?

14. Rousseau and Freud (Due April 26)

Choose two of the following questions, on each of the two authors.

ROUSSEAU

  1. What does Rousseau mean by "evil"? Why does he suppose that the emergence of society is the source of all evil?
  2. What was pre-social humanity like, according to Rousseau?
  3. Why is natural man beyond good and evil? What role does pity play in Rousseau's account of human nature?

FREUD

¬…  How does Freud distinguish between biology and culture? What are the three parts of the mind? What are the basic drives or instincts?

¬…  What does happiness consist in? Why is complete happiness impossible? Why do humans seek happiness in so many different ways?

¬…  Explain Freud's "hydraulic" model of the mind. What happens when a natural drive is denied its primary object?

¬…  How does the conscience or superego work? What is the source of its energy? Why is there a danger of a vicious cycle? Compare and constrast Freud's view of the conscience with that of Plato or Aristotle.

15. Nietzsche and Sartre ( DUE May 3)

Pick two questions to answer, one from each of the two authors.

NIETZSCHE

Readings:
Twilight of the Idols: "Morality as Anti-Nature", "The 'Improvers' of Mankind", and "Expeditions of an Untimely Man" (sections 35 and 37).
The Anti-Christ: sections 1-9, 15-16, 24-28, 33-36, 43, 57.

  1. How does Nietzsche distinguish between the morality of good/bad and the morality of good/evil? Which does he favor, and why?
  2. How, according to Nietzsche, is Christianity and Christian morality biased against the intelligent, powerful and creative?
  3. How does Nietzsche derive his morality from nature? Compare and contrast this with attempts to do the same thing by Aristotle and Aquinas.
  4. What common error does Nietzsche find in both the Aryan morality (the law of Manu) and in Christian morality (pp. 65-69)?
  5. Contrast Nietzsche's view of pity and compassion with that of Hume and Rousseau. (pp. 99-101, 128-129) On what basis does Nietzsche object to the idea of equal rights? (pp. 186-9)
  6. What does Nietzsche mean by 'decadence'? How does this notion figure in his analysis of modern culture and morality?

SARTRE

  1. What does Sartre mean by 'responsibility'? In what sense are we responsible for our world? What are the implications of this view for ethics?
  2. What does Sartre mean by saying that we are 'condemned to be free'? In what sense does human existence precede human essence?
  3. Do any values have an objective basis in human nature? What is the status of the value of freedom itself? (seep. 45)
  4. What is the point of Sartre's story of the young man and his choice between his mother and the underground? Is there any sense in which an existentialist can pass moral judgment on another's choices? Why or why not?
Last updated February 8, 2005
Created by: Robert C. Koons
Send comments to: koons at mail.utexas.edu

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