Connection Essay #1
A great improvement (IMHO) in software applications in the past few years is the current inclusion of tutorials on how to use the program. These go beyond the searchable Help feature, such as that found in Word and Excel, which allows users to request help on a specific task. These applications actually include sample activities to help users learn some of the basic functions of the program. Director, Authorware, and PhotoShop all fall into this category. Whether by happy accident or informed deliberation, some of these tutorials stand up remarkably well when examined through the lens of instructional theory. More particularly, they seem to embody some of the principles and research findings Bandura discussed in his article on observational learning.
The underlying assumption of software tutorials matches that of social cognitive theory, namely that observers can learn new patterns of behavior by observing the performance of others. (In this case, the "others" are the instructional designers; the computer serves only as a medium through which the modeling is carried out.) Learners observe a performance, then attempt to match their own performance to it. Mimicry may be the objective during the lesson, but the ultimate goal of these tutorials is, of course, for observers to acquire concepts and rules that they can then use to suit their own needs and circumstances.
Bandura explains that one limitation on the success of observational learning is the observer's level of psychological development. Modeled events that are too fast or complex can overwhelm an observer (did the phrase "cognitive overload" exist in 1977?) and lead to fragmented learning. He stresses the importance of repeated exposures to help learners develop an adequate conception of modeled activities. In this regard, computers may hold an advantage over live models. Computers are endlessly patient; a learner can have a behavior modeled and explained as many times as she or he wants. There are no time limits, no fear of "looking stupid," and none of the mounting intimidation that an increasingly frustrated model may evoke. While the learner may be unable to control the complexity of the modeling, she can control the number of exposures she has to the modeling and her rate of progress. The tutorials provided in the software programs mentioned above all do an excellent job of providing ways for learners to review the entire tutorial or revisit specific points that are unclear.
Opportunities to practice modeled behaviors are extremely important to successful learning. Bandura explains that one benefit of practice is that it makes deficiencies in performance evident, and allows learners to recognize what they need to look for in subsequent modeled performances. Director and Authorware tutorials incorporate opportunities for learners to practice the skill while still inside the tutorial. When learners realize that they cannot perform a step well, they can access that step directly and see it modeled again. Since the tutorial provides an example of the finished product, learners can compare their product with it and determine when their performance is adequate. In fact, PhotoShop tutorials invite the learner to examine the finished product before beginning the tutorial so that they can develop a sense of what comprises expert performance.
Director and Authorware tutorials consist of a narrated performance of a target behavior. During the narration, key points in the process are listed in step format. From the viewpoint of observational learning, this can aid attention, retention, and production processes. The tutorials channel learners' attention by emphasizing the essential features of the performance. By providing a step by step written version of the process, they help to transform the physical action into verbal symbols. This list of steps can also serve as a guide for learners' actions as they engage in the production process.
Yet, computer modeling may be inferior to live models
in one way. I've had the opportunity to teach a fair number of lessons
on how to use various pieces of software, modeling behaviors that students
observe and then practice. In class settings this leads to the inevitable
problem of people learning at different rates, holding some back while
overwhelming others. Nevertheless, I've often found that people like to
learn in this way, even with this serious disadvantage, and may even prefer
it to learning from a computer tutorial. (I could be wrong on that; it's
merely a suspicion and I have no research to support it.) One reason this
may be so is that a live model can adjust to the cognitive capabilities
of a learner in ways a computer tutorial cannot. Bandura cites Bullock
as finding that learning occurs most rapidly and reliably when such adjustment
is made. Another explanation social cognitive theory might offer is that
there is a set of incentives at work which are not available during individualized,
self-paced, computer-delivered tutorials. However, I suspect there is more
at play here, and I'm not sure if social cognitive theory can account for
it. I think people are reassured by the presence of a live instructor.
Even when the instructor models the behavior in the same way as a computer-based
tutorial, and even when learners do not need to have the lesson adjusted
to meet their own capabilities, there is something calming in the idea
that it is possible to get tailored help, if needed. The lack of someone
who will listen if being heard is important may impact the effectiveness
of software tutorials.