General Augustus Henry Lane-Fox Pitt Rivers
April 14, 1827 - May 4, 1900
His Influence on Modern Archaeology
Jennifer E. Stephens
During
the nineteenth century the study of Archaeology took enormous developmental
steps. Archaeologists were faced with new ideas which would guide
them in making decisions on which modern Archaeology would be based.
The European world felt a need for knowledge of antiquity, and the archaeologists
were prepared to give them what they wanted. But instead of the average
treasure hunter, the new Archaeologist would deliver reasonable, intellectual
and believable information. Innovations in Geology such as the idea
of a stratified earth with layers which "determine the age of fossil remains
by the 
stratum
they occupy below the earth" aided the archaeologists in advancing their
field into one of science (Britannica #1,1998:1). The coming of Charles
Darwin's idea of evolution with the Origin
of Species sent archaeologists in motion to explore new
ideas and modify the old. The notion that the world might be older
than the church claimed it to be sparked a search for the answers to the
loose ends of history. Many men took on the task to discover the
past, but few did it as meticulously as General Augustus Henry Lane-Fox
Pitt Rivers. This strong minded archaeologist has been dubbed the
" father of British Archaeology", and to many he is the father of modern
scientific Archaeology as well (Britannica #2,1998:1).
Beginning
with his military service at Sandhurst, Pitt Rivers learned the methods
of perfection and developed a keen eye for detail which would gain him
world wide recognition. During the 1850's, while in service in Ireland,
he developed an interest in the rifle and its development throughout history.
This concentration on the evolution of the rifle was set off by the same
idea which was sweeping across Europe, the evolution of species.
Pitt Rivers compared organic evolution to that of material cultural development.
He coined the word 'typology' to explain his method of "arrangement of
artifacts in chronological, developmental sequence" (Bahn,1996:25).
His idea suggested that material cultural evolved from generation to generation
like a sort of gene. According to Pitt Rivers, "typology forms a
tree of progress and distinguishes the leading shoots from the inner branches"
(Thompson,1977:41). He believed this method to be the "key to the
whole of human culture" (Thompson,1977:42). His purpose, therefore,
was not concentrated on collecting artifacts solely for display, but in
order to create a complex scheme of evidence to outline history.
His military career took him all over the world where his new interest
in Archaeology could be satisfied by collecting artifacts of a global range.
Pitt Rivers applied his method of typology to most of his finds including
"different types of offensive and defensive weaponry, then into tools and
implements and thence to items of dress and ornament" ( Bowden,1991:47).
"The theory of typology is clearly seen in [his] scheme for the derivation
of Australian weapons, where a variety of clubs, boomerangs, throwing sticks,
shields and spears are placed in sequences from simplicity to complexity
all beginning with the common ancestor of a plain cylindrical stick" (Greene,1983:32)
The method of typology employed by Pitt Rivers is much broader than that
of which is practiced today because "his ideas of universal validity were
too abstract to have any chronological promise" (Greene,1983:101).
There were many early excavations by Pitt Rivers
that did not compare in technique to his more mature site excavations.
He would not put his well recognized techniques into action until later
in his Archaeological career. The well known excavation methods of
Pitt Rivers came to full light in his personal excavations at Cranborne
Chase. This was an estate which he inherited from a great uncle which
was "littered with ancient burial sites and earthworks" (Fagan,1994:8).
The name Pitt Rivers is derived from the inheritance of Cranborne Chase
which brought him much wealth. This newly found Archaeological haven
and enormous wealth allowed him to accomplish an Archaeological model which
would "establish the true basis of modern field technique" (Bahn,1996:30).
The Cranborne Chase excavations permitted Pitt Rivers to work with out
the worries of time or money spent on any aspect of the dig including the
publishing of all the details recorded. An excavation of this grandeur
is one that will probably never be reproduced (Barker,1982:13). While
other archaeologists were partaking in what can be called a "period of
enthusiastic and unashamed treasure hunting," Pitt Rivers preferred to
view Archaeology as a way "to produce the longtime scale necessary to establish
an evolutionary sequence" (Bowden,1991:55-58). There was an absence
of respect for what was being dealt with and a lack of consistency employed
by his contemporaries (Bowden,1991:58). The data collected by these
men was contaminated by their own desires and ideas of what their finds
should mean. This infestation of tainted evidence caused problems
with the researchers at home (Bowden,1991:45). Pitt Rivers turned
his head from this and began working in a precise, organized and meticulous
manner to improve the known history of the earth. Archaeology improved
with the examples set by Pitt Rivers beginning with some of his basic principals
of digging:
|
Some Basic Principals
of Digging |
| 1. "No excavation ought to ever
be permitted except under the immediate eye of a responsible and trustworthy
superintendent." |
| 2. "Superfluous precision may be regarded
as a fault on the right side." |
| 3. "Tedious as it may appear to
some to dwell on the discovery of odds and ends that have, no doubt, been
thrown away by the owner as rubbish...yet it is by the study of such trivial
details that Archaeology is mainly dependent for determining the date of
earthworks."
(Fagan,1994:9) |
Modern Archaeology is based on many of these principals
of digging such as this contemporary research design:
|
Research Design |
| "Formulation of a research strategy to
resolve a particular question or test a hypothesis or idea." |
| "Collecting and recording of evidence
against which to test that idea, usually by the organization of a team
of specialists and conducting of fieldwork." |
| "Processing and analysis of that evidence
and its interpretation in the light of the original idea to be tested." |
| "Publication of the results in articles,
books etc."
(Bahn,1996:67) |
Pitt Rivers was especially interested in recording all the details from
a site and making sure that they were available through publication.
Of the Cranborne Chase excavations, "each was published privately, complete
with detailed plans, accurate measurements of every artifact and precise
information on every aspect of the site from pottery to hut foundations
and stratigraphy to animal bones" (Fagan,1994:9). He made improvements
in technique with scientific excavation by digging a site layer by layer
with close attention to the stratification (Greene,1983:58). Highly
trained assistants helped him with his excavations at Cranborne Chase.
He insisted that these men be skilled in surveying, draftsmanship and conveying
three dimensionality (Thompson,1977:14). These men worked six days
a week on a small stipend and lived with Pitt Rivers in his home (Bowden,1991:107).
He was an "exacting taskmaker" who visited the excavations three times
a day (Bowden,1991:104). One assistant, W.S. Tomkin, was forced to
redraw some of the record he had completed when Pitt Rivers deemed them
unworthy because of their lack of perfection in his eyes (Bowden,1991:104).
His meticulous nature 
made
him difficult to get along with, but this detrimental social quality allowed
him to create some of the most highly regarded Archaeological data in history.
Along with the desire for perfection came a vision of public education.
This was made possible by his detailed publications and the placement of
his finds in museums for public viewing. He believed that "the knowledge
of the facts of evolution...can be taught by museums, provided they are
arranged in such a manner that those who run may read." Because,"the
working class have built little time for study" (Bowden,1991:49).
With his immense collection that he began in the army, Pitt Rivers made
giant amounts of information available to the public through the Oxford,
Farnham and Bethnal Green Museums.
Pitt
Rivers shaped the future of Archaeology with his precise methods of excavation.
Although now these seem to have lost their flare, the techniques instigated
by Pitt Rivers were revolutionary. He was a pioneer of Archaeological
excavation who learned from no one but his own strong instincts.
After his death on May 4, 1900, it took approximately thirty years for
the rest of British Archaeology to catch up with the standards set by Pitt
Rivers (Bowden,1991:162).
medallion placed in excavation sites
Send questions or
comments to Jennifer Stephens
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Bibliography of a few of Pitt Rivers' Major Works
1867 Primitive Warfare Part 1
Journal of the Royal United Services Institution
1875 On the Evolution of Culture
Proceedings of the Royal Institute of Great Britain
1887 Excavations in Cranborne Chase vol.1
Privately Printed
1888 Excavations in Cranborne Chase vol.2
Privately Printed
1892 Excavations in Cranborne Chase vol.3
Privately Printed
1898 Excavations in Cranborne Chase vol.4
Privately Printed
Works Cited:
Encyclopedia Britannica Online (#1)
3/9/98 The Study of History
<http://www.eb.com:180/cgi-bin/g?DocF=micro/5002/87/30.html>
Bahn, Paul and Renfrew, Colin
1996 Archaeology: Theories,
Methods, and Practice New York: Thames and
Hudson
Fagan, Brian M.
1994 Quest for the Past:
Great Discoveries in Archaeology Prospect Heights,
IL: Waveland Press Inc.
Encyclopedia Britannica Online (#2)
3/9/98 Pitt Rivers, Augustus
Henry Lane-Fox <http://www.eb.com:180/cgi-bin/g?DocF=micro/469/80.html>
Trigger, Bruce G.
1989 A History of Archaeological
Thought New York: Cambridge University Press
Barker, Phillip
1982 Techniques of Archaeological
Excavation London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.
Greene, Kevin
1983 Archaeology, An Introduction:
The history, principals and methods of modern archaeology
Totowa, NJ: Barnes and Noble
Bowden, Marc
1991 Pitt Rivers
New York: Cambridge University Press
Thompson, M.W.
1977 General Pitt Rivers:
evolution and archaeology in the 19th century Wiltshire:
Moonraker Press