Introduction to Archaeology
Anthro 304 / ARY 301 Spring 1997
Prof. Samuel M. Wilson
Department of Anthropology, University of Texas
Glossary Project
In this project we will begin a glossary of terms and concepts used in archaeology. There are a few others on the web, including SMU's Glossary of Archaeological Terms, and ArchNet's Glossary of Ceramic Attributes. We have the chance to add to this by building a glossary that includes more complete discussions of terms and concepts relating to history and theory in archaeology, along with examples and citations.
Teams:
Blue: Joe, Pat, Sara, Sally, Ted -- Their Page
Red: Annie, Bill, Matthew, Jenny, Will -- Their Page
Green: Sasha, Wellington, Rocco, Carlos, Carolyn
Terms
Achieved Status-- Social standing and prestige
reflecting the ability of an individual to acquire an established position
in society as a result of individual accomplishments. Found in more egalitarian
societies, and often reflected in funerary practices. Achieved status is
not ascribed through birth, but individual achievements. British archaeologist,
Susan Shennan, did an innovative study of burials at the Copper Age cemetery
at Branc in Slovakia. She assigned points on a scale of "units of
wealth" to valuable objects. She then produced a diagram of the wealth
structure of the cemetery with relation to age and sex.
Further description can be obtained in Archaeology,
by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, p. 188.
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Aerial Reconnaissance
Aerial reconnaissance involves gathering data from a heightened
elevation, usually from an aircraft. Assumed to be chiefly for the
discovery of archaeological sites, aerial reconaissance is helpful in many
other ways, such as mapping areas, noting transformations in the landscape,
and interpreting the form of the site. For places where there exists heavy
erosion, such as coastal
areas, archaeological reconaissance plays the major part in monitoring
the evolution of these sites. This method of data-collecting is just one
benefit of the technology of today. Just imagine how difficult it must
have been for Cortez to see the expanse of the New Land, for ancient
Egyptian civilizations who wanted to know if where they were headed was
where they wanted to go, or even for an archaeologist in the 18th century
to evaluate the intricate features of a site. (SJ)
Agriculture- a method of obtaining food that involves the use of domesticated plants and animals. For success, agriculture requires propagation-the sowing of seeds and breeding of animals, husbandry- caring for plants and animals during their growth phase, harvesting plants and slaughtering animals, and the storage of seeds and maintenance of animals to ensure they can reproduce again. The domestication of plants and animals is vital to agriculture. Agriculture began independently and almost simultaneously about 7000 to 10,000 years ago in about four different geographic locations: the Near East, the Far East, Mexico, and South America. The advent of agriculture provided more food which could then support a larger population. However, agriculture also led to a dependence on only a few crops which caused malnutrition. A reliance on a limited amount of resources can also cause famine if weather or human error ruins one of the crops.
For more information about the beginnings of agriculture consult "The Beginnings of Agriculture in the Far East" by K. Chang in Antiquity 44: 175-185, 1970, and "Agricultural Origins: Centers and Non-Centers" by J.R. Harlan in Science 174:468-474, 1971. (CMG)
Archaeoastronomy
The study of ancient alignments and other aspects
of the archaeological record and their relationship to ancient
astronomical knowledge and events. This was used in the 1900s, such as at the Machu Picchu site in 1911
and more recently as well. The example is from the Machu Piccu site in South America, in which
archaeoastronomy was employed to analyze possible ancient astronomical
structures, as stated in the Images of the Past textbook. The work of Alexander Thom on the British megalithic circles is
relevent to archaeoastronomy, as archaeoastronomical methods were
employed in understanding the astronomical significance of the ancient
structures. (TW)
Ascribed Status
Social standing or prestige attributed to an individual at birth,
as a result of hereditary factors and regardless of ability or
accomplishments. Archaeologists usually determine whether a culture's
status was predominantly ascribed or achieved by the content of
it's burial sites. For example, at Moundville,
rare and exotic items such as copper earspools, stone disks, shell
beads, and oblong copper gorgets1 were found in the
burial sites of individuals of all sexes and ages, strongly
indicating the predominance of ascribed status in that culture.
The graves of children, if rich and lavish, are most indicative
of ascribed status, since they could not have achieved high status
on their own.
For further information try:
Some important work dealing with cultural status
correlation can be found in the work of Christopher Peebles and
Susan Kus. ("Some Archaeological Correlates of Ranked Society."
American Antiquity. 42:421-428.).
1 (Price &
Feinman. Images of the Past. pg 266).
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Assemblages
Assemblages are commonly known as persons or things assembled. Yet
in archaeological context, the word has a slightly altered meaning. At an
archaeological site, for example, there can exist many assemblages, ranging
from chipped
stone assemblages to skeletal assemblages. Maritime archaeology relies
heavily on underwater assemblages
of items to determine how things came to be submerged, a crucial factor in
research. The position and setting of these assemblages is probably the
most valuable information source for archaeologists, allowing us to
discover countless things, such as where tools were made or whether a
population was sedentary or not. (SJ)
Chiefdom
Chiefdom is a term generally linked to agricultural societies, used to
describe complex, tribal societies having one leader, or chief. The chief,
who inherits the position through bloodlines, yet was initially chosen for
strong physical and spiritual strengths, is at the top of the hierarchical
organization of the tribe, and is looked to for religious guidance by
members of it. This type of community is considered to be regionally
centralized, with trade and traffic existing in the area, and is
characterized by the existence of a permanent ritual and ceremonial center.
Some modern examples of chiefdoms are the Northwest Coast Indians of the
United States, and eighteenth-century Polynesian chiefdoms in Tonga,
Tahiti, and Hawaii. A more
detailed definition is possible, although a chiefdom is largely seen as
a society whose political and social structure is a hierarchical one,
dominated by a designated chief. (SJ)
Complex Society
Societies which show in particular increased
specialization and occupational separation. As inferred by the
social typology set out by Elman Service, in complex societies,
people "no longer combine, say, the tasks of obtaining food,
making tools, or performing religious rights but become specialists
at one or other of these tasks" (Renfrew & Bahn. Archaeology,
pg.168). With the creation of craft specialists comes increased
technology, concern with the advancement of society by specialized
participation, and intensification of food production. Along with
the beneficial effects of specialization; however, follows the
tendency for some individuals to gain power and wield authority,
hence the development of social ranking. William Sanders is
known for his elaboration on the work by Service and for his own
work in the Copan Valley,
dealing with the origins of complex societies.(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Context--
An artifact's context usually
consists of its immediate matrix, its provenience, and its association
with other artifacts. The context of a find is important to archaeologists
to identify and accurately record associations between remains on sites.
Precious information is lost when context is not recorded. Most knowledge
of the Mimbres people was lost forever when looters bulldozed their sites,
hunting for their prized 1000-year-old bowls.(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
cultural anthropology
Cultural anthropology, or social anthropology is one of the
three subdisciplines into which anthropology is usually divided. (The
other two are physical anthropology and archaeology.) Cultural
anthropology analyzes and studies human cultures and societies,
concerning itself with non-genetic aspects of human behavior, such as
social, linguistic, and technological aspects. Two important branches
of this anthropological subdiscipline are ethnography, the study of
individual living cultures, and ethnology, which uses ethnographic
evidence to compare cultures in order to derive general principles about
human society.
Cultural anthropology arose in the 19th century and focused
upon Darwins theory of evolution. It was assumed that if biological
life had evolved from simpler to more complex forms, human culture might
likewise have evolved from simpler to more complex forms. Early
cultural anthropologist did little field work and concerned
themselves with the evolution of all cultures as opposed to studying
particular cultures. They commonly believed the development of human
culture had occurred in uniform stages. Actual field work during the
20th century disproved the 19th century cultural anthropologists
scheme of cultural evolution. (WK)
cultural ecology:
Archaeological and anthropological perspective
which considers the relationship between social groups and their
environments, including technological, political, or economical
aspects. The theory provides a means to explain the evolution of
societies, by approaching cultural characteristics and institutions as
adaptations to environment. An important use of culture ecological
research is to compare different cultures and environments and evaluate
each adaptive strategy. Ecology theory in archaeology developed
beginning in the 1940's, and has since taken root in modern
archaeological perspectives. The theory as it is used today is credited
to Julian Steward, who helped apply it to areas such as settlement
archaeology. Ecological perspective in archaeology helped establish the
longstanding thesis of sociocultural evolution.
A work on cultural ecology:
Steward, Julian H. 1968. Cultural ecology. In International
encyclopedia of the social sciences, D. I. Sills, ed. Macmillan, New
York, vol.4, pp. 337-344. (RL)
Culture area
A culture area is a geographic region
characterized by fairly uniform environment and culture. The idea of
culture areas originated during the 1800's as an ethnographic
means of arranging museum exhibits. Archaeologist used the ethnographer's
culture
areas on the premise that they represent long-standing cultural
divisions.
Although some people today consider the idea of culture areas to
be a remnant of European colonialism, the concept of culture areas
continues to prove itself useful in many different contexts. The term is
still used in discussions of indigenous American peoples, as the following
examples show Prehistory of the
Caribbean Culture Area web page, the references to the "Woodland
Culture area" in an article titled "The
Plymouth Thanksgiving Story," and the reference to the Mohawks
living in the "Eastern Woodland culture area" on the 17th Century Culture of
the Mohawk, an Iroquois Nation page of the OLIVE TREE Genealogy.
(WK)
Cultural Evolution
The theory that cultural evolution can be studied and
understood by comparing it to the processes involved in biological evolution
of species. It links biological and social aspects together as causes for
evolution. Evolution has always strongly influenced archaeological studies,
and with the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species,
thoughts on evolutionary theories became even more prevalent. Cultural
evolution is more difficult to define because not only can it follow a
heredity pattern, but culture can also be learned. In 1959, Leslie White
published The Evolution of Culture, which sought to simply generalize
changes that have occurred culturally, rather than pinpoint them, and thus
made the link between biological and cultural evolution easier to establish.
John Reader's text Man on Earth cites several examples of how the two
intertwine and feed off of each other, such as the rice growers of Bali,
whose culture altered as their environment, and thus biological
characteristics, altered.
For further information try:
Concept of One Universal Life
Nature, Nurture, and
Human History
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Culture History
-- Culture can be defined
as all capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society,
or the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior not
dictated by biology. Culture History is then the history of the
evolution of culture. It can also be thought of as the transmission of
culture from generation to generation. For more information look through
the following sources: 1) Pfeiffer, J. 1985. The Emergence of Humankind.
New York: Harper and Row; 2) Renfrew, C. (ed). 1973. The Explanation of
Cultural Change. London: Duckworth. (AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Descent Group
-- All the individuals related
to one another through a previous common ancestor: a lineage or clan. In
some instances, this common ancestor may be a mythical being in the distant
past. For example, the Jewish race believes itself to be the descendants
of the Biblical figure Abraham or Abram.
Further description can be obtained in Images
of the Past, by T. Douglas Price and Gary M. Feinman
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Diachronic
A chronological perspective that refers to phenomena as they
change over time. Chronology is extremely important in archaeology, as
without being able to determine when events occurred, no order or sense can
be made of what is discovered and unearthed. For a long period of time, the
relationship between archaeology and chronology was a simple one: events and
items were simply labeled according to when they occurred and existed.
However, the reasons as to why phenomena occurred when they did and why they
altered over time became increasingly important. Thus was the reason for
the diachronic perspective. This form of chronological study was propelled
by Kent Flannery in 1967, when he detailed that the goal of this method is
to reconstruct the patterns of change among phenomenons. The diachronic
method is indeed a new one, and thus has only really been utilized during
the latter half of the present century.
For further information try:
Time Scales and Global
Stratigraphic Correlation
Also, Sandra Harley Carey's dissertation, A Diachronic and Synchronic Analysis of
the Relation Between Cause Specific Mortality Patterns and Status
Integration, submitted to the University of Texas at Austin, details how
the thoughts and theories about disease and other causes of death have
changed over the years.
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Diffusionist Explanation
-- The term diffusion
implies that an innovation from one place or culture spreads to influence
other places and cultures. One example of diffusion is the spread
of the alphabet from its origin in Phoenician script all the way to the
Roman alphabet. Diffusionist Explanation is an archaeological theory
that says attributes of civilization diffused from the Near East to Europe.
Gordon Childe modified this early 19th century extremist theory, arguing
that although most major cultural developments came through eastern influences,
Europe developed somewhat indigenously. For a more in depth explanation,
see: Trigger, B. G. 1989. A History of Archaeological Thought. Cambridge
and New York: Cambridge University Press.(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Domestication- the taming of wild animals and plants by humans. Animals are herded and their care and feeding becomes dependent upon humans, while plants are farmed and become dependent upon humans for propagation. Domestication changes the physical characteristics of the plants and animals involved. The first domesticated animal is thought to be the dog which occurred about 14,000 years ago. Cereals are thought to be the first domesticated plants. Other animals and plants soon followed. This led to agriculture-a way of obtaining food that involves domesticated plants and animals. Domestication began in about four different locations at about the same time: the Near East around 8000 B.C.; the Far East between 3000 and 7000 B.C.; Mexico sometime before 5000 B.C.; South America by 5000 B.C.
For further reading about domestication, try The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants edited by P.J. Ucko and G.W. Dibleby, 1969, and A History of Domesticated Animals by F.E. Zuener, 1963. (CMG)
Ethnoarchaeology
The study of cultural material, such as pots,
weapons, and tools, the understanding of how and why these materials
were used, and interpretations on what they were used for. Often,
ethnoarchaeologists consider living people and their present day use of
materials to understand post-day uses of similar materials.
-ethnoarchaeology completely developed only over the past 20-25 years
-Lewis Binford: an ethnoarchaeologist who devoted a lot of time and
research to the study of hunter-gatherers.
For further information try:
ArchNet
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Food Production--
A stage in which the
subsistence of a particular culture depends upon the development of crops
and, in many cases, animal domestication. Quite often, the crops' development
can be supplemented through such advanced farming techniques as irrigation,
crop rotation, and hillside terracing. The term Food Production refers
specifically to cultures living in sedentary communities. These settlements,
due to their larger size, reside closer to food sources for greater convenience.
Broken K Pueblo provides an excellent example of a settlement using Food
Production; this site contains evidence of farming, as well as corn grinders
and firepits.
The History of Corn in North America demonstrates
corn's importance to America's indigenous cultures.
Further description can be obtained in Archaeology,
by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn.
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Geochronology- a table that how geological events are related to archaeological events. These grids gain their information from geochronology which is using geology to sequence archaeological events. Evidence used in geochronology includes ice cores, deep sea cores, and sediments containing pollen. For example, knowledge about climate changes on a worldwide scale was determined through the analysis of cores drilled from the deep sea floor. These cores’ sediments contain the shells of microscopic marine animals. The ration of two oxygen isotopes in the calcium carbonate of these shells is a good indicator of the temperature of the seas at the time these organisms lived. Because of this data, archaeologists have a sequence of temperature fluctuations for the past 2.3 million years. This information provides a framework for a chronology of the Pleistocene period. A good example of a geochronological grid can be found on page 119 of Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice by Renfrew and Bahn, 1996. More information about geochronology can be found in "The Geochronological Approach to Dating Archaeological Sites" by T.L. Rewe in American Antiquity 2:308-315 and T.L. Smiley’s Geochronology, 1955. (CMG)
georadar
- a technique used in ground reconnaissance, similar to
soil-sounding radar, but with a much larger antenna and more
extensive coverage.
This was developed by U.S.and Swedish technicians. It has a large
antenna mounted on a boom, attached to a full-sized radar truck. It transmits
electromagnetic enegy into the ground, and part of this is reflected if it encounters
an interface between two different materials of different electrical properties
such as bedrock and soil, or woil and an object. Measurement of th etime between
the transmited and reflected signals helps to locate the position of the different
layers and any objects present. The device has been found capable of reaching
depths of 4m in terrain such as peat and has, for example, traced the course of
a Bronze Age oak trackway half a meter below the surface of a Danish peat bog.
For a in depth look and some pictures,
check this web-site out! (CR)
Historical Archaeology
The study of colonial and postcolonial
settlement in north america (in Europe, it's known as medieval or
postmedieval archaeology), and other documented cultures. (PF, SJ, SM, JB)
household cluster: American archaeological term used to describe
the features of one house cluster. For example, a house, activity area,
rubbish area, storage pits, graves, and an oven would constitute a
household cluster. (RL)
Lifeways--
A term describing a society's
cultural and economic development. In the 1950's, a "Rejuvenation
of Archaeology" incorporated aspects of economic and anthropological
studies, forming a newer, multi-disciplinary, school of archaeology. Lifeways
encompasses broad aspects of a civilization : their food production, economy,
family life, and trade practices.
An interesting link regarding this subject : Lifeways
Camp, a camp in which participants engage in activities which would
comprise an average day for a Native American. This site proves an interesting
example of skills involved in a culture's "lifeways."
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Lithics
Lithics are artifacts made of stone. These generally take the form of stone tools or
flakes left behind from the process of making stone tools. Projectile points are a good example of a lithic.
Lithics are often very helpful in dating pre-historic archaeological sites since it is known
when specific stone technology was developed.
For further information try:
Links to Resources on
Stone Artifacts
ArchNet - Lithics
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Middle Range Theory: A conceptual framework combining methods of
science with methods of deduction, in order to evaluate abstract,
untestable generalizations. This is accomplished by subdividing the
high-level generalization into testable conclusions. Thereby, the
broader hypothesesis is evaluated when the subsections are tested. In
archaeology, middle range theory connects material remains with
hypotheses of past cultural events and behavior. For instance, the
question of why a society became sedentary requires analytical and
empirical examination of aspects such as warfare, economy and
population. The theory became of interest to the archaeological world
during the 1960's and will continue to play an important role in the
future.
Some important works on middle range theory:
Binford, Lewis R. 1981. Bones: ancient men and modern myths.
Academic Press, New York.
Merton, Robert. 1949. Social theory and social structure (RL)
Multidisciplinary Research
Research that incorporates scientists or
studies from a number of disciplines. Basically, it is research that
includes the ideas and has studies in many different fields, for example
in archaeoastronomy and paleoethnobotanists. The idea of multidisciplinary research is really not restricted to a
specific time period; rather, as long as people have participated in
research they have included research from other fields in their studies.
Some time context for the example below, however, is around the 1950's
at the site of Jarmo in Iraqi Kurdistan. The Images of the Past textbook gives the example of the Koobi Fora
project as an example of multidisciplinary research, in which approaches
from the fields of geology, geography, zoology, ethnoarchaeology, and
ethology have been employed to understand the site. The work of Robert Braidwood is relevent, in that his archaeological
dig and study on early agriculture in the natural habitat of the Near
East used multidisciplinary research.
(TW)
Multivariate Explanation--
A method of describing
the evolution of a society with an emphasis on the aggregate of the interactions
of different aspects of that society (A monocausal explanation of a society
would attribute one event or development, for example, to one or more major
changes in a society's development.) Multivariate explanation explains
the ways in which a number of simultaneous or subsequent discoveries alter
a society--the "multiplier effect" of archaeology. Example: the
development of the Minoan Crete civilization in 2100 BC and the later peaking
of the Mycenaean Greek civilization in 1600 BC.
Further description can be obtained in Archaeology,
by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn pp 458-459.
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
New Archaeology
A modern approach to the problems of archaeological
interpretrations, which had the following characteristics -
1) archaeology was now to explain past change, not simply to describe it,
2)archaeology would now think in terms of culture process in explaining
archaelogical finds, 3) New archaeology involves the formulation of
hypotheses and models and uses more deductive reasoning, 4) hypotheses
were to be tested and only accepted on the basis of the evidence, not
the standing of the archaeologist, 5) research should be designed to
answer specific questions economically, 6)archaeology was now to
incorporate quantitative data using sampling and significance testing,
and 7)archaeology would now be more positive and try to solve all
problems.
New archaelogy began in about the mid-1960s in the United States.
An example of the influence of new archaeology is in the Great
Zimbabwe site of monuments, which has historicaly been ascribed to other
cultures by traditional archaelogists. New archaelogy has backed up
claims of those who say that those in Zimbabwe built the site themselves
in ancient times with no foreign builder. This is in the Archaeology
textbook. (TW)
Palynology--
The analysis of fossil pollen
as an aide to the reconstruction of past vegetation and climates. Useful
in understanding an individual society's diet, utilization of agriculture,
and the impact on its environment. (A sharp drop in the pollen count could
indicate the clearing of land.) Also useful in understanding societies'
interaction with other societies. (A plant known to be foreign to one area
but whose pollen is abundant in that area can indicate importation.) This
type of analysis was used in the field by British palyntologist John Flenley
in his studies of Easter Island.
The
North American Pollen Database provides an informative database on
this subject.
Further description can be obtained in Archaeology,
by Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn, pp. 226-7.
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
provenience: The source, or original location of something. In
archaeological excavations or surveys, the provenience of artifacts and
debris is usually recorded carefully. The provenience of items is
determined by applying a three dimensional reference system. Here are
some links to good examples of provenience data of actual sites:
http://spirit.lib.uconn.edu/ArchNet/Regions/Northeast/7231/lithpro.htm
http://spirit.lib.uconn.edu/ArchNet/Regions/Northeast/7231/faupro.htm
(RL)
Phytoliths
Minute parts of silica in the cells of plants that are
specific to certain parts of the plants. Phytoliths survive even after
the plant decomposes or burns, which allows them to serve as efficient
clues to archaeologists on harvesting periods and techniques, etc. they
can also help differentiate between wild and domestic plant species.
-Hiroshi Fujiwara discovered phytoliths of rice in walls of Jomon
pottery of Japan (c 500BC), which proved that rice cultivation existed
at that time. He then analyzed the phytoliths in soil samples and
determined an estimated depth and areal extent of the fields and the
total yield of rice.
For further information try:
Rice Genetics Newsletter
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
radiocarbon dating
--Radiocarbon dating determines the age of organic material by
measuring the decay of the radioactive isotope called radiocarbon
or carbon-14 (14C) into the more stable isotope carbon-12
(12C). This decay like all radioactive decay occurs at a
constant rate. All living organisms have the same ratio of these two
carbon isotopes as the atmosphere, where new atoms of carbon-14
constantly replace those which decay allowing the ratio of different
carbon atoms in the atmosphere to remain constant. However when an
organism dies, it no longer takes in carbon atoms from the atmosphere or
from plants which have taken carbon from the atmosphere, and the amount
of carbon-14 within it decreases as radiocarbon decay occurs. This
allows us to determine, when an organism died and thereby the age of the
organism.
Radiocarbon dating began in 1949, when William Libby published
the first radiocarbon dates. Improvements in radiocarbon dating
have helped to eliminate some systematic errors and have made scientist
more aware of the level of uncertainty involved with radiocarbon
dating. The development in the late 70's and early 80's of a more
advanced method, that uses special gas counters, allowed still smaller
pieces of material to be tested. Formerly 5 g of pure carbon, requiring
10-20 g of wood or charcoal were needed to acquire an age using
radiocarbon dating. Using new methods results could be found
using as little as a few hundred mg of charcoal. An even more advanced
method, known as accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) has now been
developed. AMS requires still smaller samples. Only 5 to 30 mg of
charcoal are required to determine the age of a sample using AMS.
Radiocarbon dating has revolutionized archaeology. It allows
generally useful dates for objects between approximately 400 years old
and 50,000 years old to be found. It has been one of the most useful
tools in establishing chronologies around the world. It has been
especially useful in establishing chronologies in cultures that lacked
timescales, such as calendars.
The following are some interesting links related to radiocarbon
dating: The Radiocarbon
WEB-info Site, which a great deal of information on radiocarbon
dating in general, the Radiocarbon Home Page, which
is the web site for the journal Radiocarbon, the Oxford
Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit's "Radiocarbon Dating for
Archaeology" page, which explains the AMS well and even has a chart
telling what quantities of different materials are needed in order to
radiocarbon date them using AMS, and an article from The
Arizona Daily Star, entitled from "UA confirms Dead Sea
Scrolls predate Christianity", which provides an example of how
radiocarbon dating can be used to resolve archaeological
questions and disputes. (WK)
Reciprocity
A non-market mode of economic integration where goods are moved between symetrical groups.
Often termed the "gift" mode of integration because goods are often given as gifts between
people, villages, or tribes. There is quite often a protocol participants
follow when giving their "gifts." Often there is an obligation to not only give an initial
gift, but to receive a gift and then recipricate that gift. Tribal societies are generally associated with,
reciprocity, though tribal, as well as most other cultures, normally make use of more than
one form of economic integration.
For further information try:
For an in depth look at modes of integration and reciprocity in particular Karl Polanyi's "The Economy as Instituted Process," from the book Trade and Markets in Early Empires, pp. 250-256 (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1971).
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Relative Dating
A process used by Archaeologists to determine
the chronological sequence of artifacts (pottery, pieces of stone
or bone), without abiding by a fixed time scale. Some popular
forms of relative dating include stratigraphy and typological
sequencing, where artifacts are sequenced according to their placement
in strata or simply by similarity. Relative dating techniques
were used predominantly in the first half of this century for
lack of more exact, absolute dating techniques. Estimates
of the relative ages of bones and stones in long sequences are
made available by relative dating techniques, and give Archaeologists
a useful chronological framework; however, they do not yield the
sometimes necessary precise calendar dates.
For further information try:
Relative dating techniques are discussed in depth by Renfrew and Bahn, with illustrations
of stratification in the Indus Valley by Mortimer Wheeler, in Archaeology- theories, methods, and practice (1991;
pg 112).
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Sedentism
--The long-term or permanent residence
of a human population in a single location, as distinguished from a pattern
of seasonal or transhumant movement between two or more locations
throughout the year. Humans were nomadic for most of their history, with
sedentism beginning only around ten thousand years ago, probably at the
end of the Pleistocene (the Ice Age) and the beginning of the Holocene.
The earliest probable sedentary society was in the Near East's "Fertile
Crescent." Sedentism, population growth, and food production are important,
marked, inter-dependent aspects of human-kind's evolution. For an excellent
web reference on this topic, refer to this interesting paper illustrating
early sedentism-- "Demonstrating
Sedentism in the Archaeological Record: a Middle Woodland Homestead in
Southeastern Indiana"
The Cambridge Ecyclopedia of Archaeology,
p161; Harris, David R. 1978. Settling Down: an Evolutionary Model....IN
THE Evolution of Social Systems, J. Friedman and M.J. Rowlands, Eds.
Univ. of Pittsburg Press, pp 401-417
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
settlement survey
There are two basic types of survey: the unsystematic
and systematic. The former is the simplest, involving walking across each part
of the are (for example, each plowed field) scanning the strip of ground along
one's path, collecting or examining artifacts on the surface, and recording their
location together with that of any surface features. It is generally felt, however,
that the results may be biased and misleading. Walkers have an inherent desire
to find material, and will therefore tend to concentrate on those areas that
seem richer, rather than obtaining a sample representative of the whole area that
would enable the archaelogist to assess the varying distribution of material
of different periods or types. Most modern survey is done in a systematic way,
employing a grid system or a series of equally space traverses or transects.
The area to be searched is divided into sectors, and these are walked systematically.
In this way, no part of the area is either under - or over-represented in the
survey. This method also makes it easier to plot the location of the finds since
one's exact position is always known. Even greater accuracy by subdividing the
traverses into units of fixed length, some of which can be more
carefully examined.
In Mesopotamia, for example, the pioneering work by Robert Adams and others, combining
surveys, have produced a picture of changing settlement size and spacing throuhg
time leading to the first cities: agricultural villages became more clustered as
population increased, and eventually by the Early Dynastic Period major centers of
distribution had arisen, interconnected by routes of communication. (CR)
Social Stratification--
Used to describe
the way in which archaeology assesses the classification of people into
groups according to status variously determined by birth, income, education,
etc., as in a caste system. Describes how societies were organized (e.g.
bands, segmentary societies, chiefdoms, or states).(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
stratigraphy
- The study and validation of stratification; the analysis
in the vertical, time dimension, of a series of layers in the horziontal space
dimension. It is often used as a relative dating technique to assess the temporal
sequence of artifact depostion.
Put simply, thist states that where one layer overlies another, the lower layer was
deposited first. Hence, an excavated vertical file showing a series of layers
constitutes a suquence that has accumulated over much shorter periods of time
than geological ones.
The complexity of stratification varies with the type of site. On page 101, of Renfrew
and Bahn shows an illustration of stratigraphy. this hypothetical section through
an urban deposit indicates the kind of complicated stratigraphy, in both horizontal
and vertical dimensions, that the archaelogist can encounter.
See the on page 101 of Renfrew and Bahn, Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice, for a better understanding of stratiagraphy. (CR)
Synchronic
A chronological perspective that refers to phenomena without regard to historical antecedents. It is the focus on the static, unchanging elements or organizations of a culture concerning itself with the function of these cultural aspects. It is a perspective which examines the structure of things at one point in time.
This method of looking at the archaeological chronology was improved upon in the New Archaeology
by the broader perspective
of the diachronic perspective.
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Taphonomy--
The assessment of what has
happened to a bone between its deposition and its discovery. Taphonomy
is a method of archaeology introduced just in the past twenty years and
pioneered by ethnoarchaeologist C.K. Brain. His work in South Africa has
shown not only the effects on carnivores on animal carcasses but also that
bone fractures, which had been previously attributed to cavemen, were actually
caused by the pressure of overlying rocks and earth in limestone caves.
For more information, the following book would be of great benefit: Brain,
C.K., 1981. An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press.(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Tell
A term that originates from the Near East, a tell is a synonym for
the archaeological term mound site. Mound sites are mounds that formed
through successive occupation of the same spot over a very extended period
of time. Tells can provide a unique key to answering questions of
occupation and evolution. They have been excavated and utilized for many
years by professional archaeologists and novices alike. For example, Thomas
Jefferson excavated burial mounds around his Virginian property in an
attempt to logically deduce how long his property had been occupied and by
whom.
For further information:
Cahokia Mounds Historical Park
Also, the reference text, The
1968 Excavations at Mound 8 - Las Colinas Ruins Group, Phoenix, Arizona,
provides details, photos, sketches, and maps of various tells in Phoenix.
(PF, SJ, SM, JB)
Transhumance-- A pattern of regular seasonal
movement by human groups. It can be seen as a form of pastoralism or nomadism,
organized around the migration of livestock or patterns of crop cultivation.
A good example is hunters following a herd of antelope as the herd migrates
to find food or a better climate. Groups that demonstrate this behavior
usually have some sort of permanent settlement. Patterns of transhumance
characterized many Bronze Age communities north of the Alps. For more information
see: Zvelebil, Marek ed. 1986. Hunters in Transition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University.
(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Underwater Archaeology (or Nautical, Marine, or Maritime Archaeology)--
Underwater Archaeology is the archaeological survey of a variety of marine
sites including wells, sink
holes, and springs (e.g. the great sacrificial well at Chichen Itza,
Mexico); submerged lakeside settlements (e.g. those of the Alpine region);
and sites ranging from shipwrecks to sunken harbors (e.g. Caesarea, Isreal)
and drowned cities (e.g. Port Royal, Jamaica). Geophysical methods are
as useful for finding sites underwater as they are for locating land sites
(e.g. 1979, magnetometry and sidescan sonar discovered schooners Hamilton
and Scourge sunk during the War of 1812 in Lake Ontario, Canada).
Excavation underwater is complex and expensive and may involve shifting
large amounts of sediments making site conservation and analytical work
very demanding.(AA, BB, JD, MC, WW)
Uniformitarianism
-- Processes occurring
in seas, rivers and lakes show the stratification of rocks; this process
occurs throughout history, but this principle surfaced around the beginning
of the 19th century. This principle marks one of the fundamental notions
of modern archaeology: that the past resembled the present in many ways.
Scottish geologist James Hutton's study on the stratification of rocks
and their layers is an example of the uniformitarianistic principle. For
more information on uniformitarianism, see uniformitarianism in Revolutions
in Geology.
SMW modified 2/18/97
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