1865-1900 - War and Assimilation on the Plains

¥     Comanche / Apache

–   Federal deal for west Texas rescinded

¥     Sioux and other on the northern Plains

–   Indian Service unable to prevent White encroachment

Congress's Position

¥     Cheaper to feed the Indians than to fight them, but diplomats would force the concessions

¥     The Peace Commission (1867-)

–   organize reservations

–   isolation from whites

–   annuities of clothing

–   allotment of lands to individuals

Squeezing the Indian Territories

¥     Land in Oklahoma purchased from the 5 C.T.

¥     Indians from northern plains and north were moved to Oklahoma

¥     Fox, Potawatami, Osage, Iowa, Nebraska Pawnee, S.D. Ponca

¥     5 C.T. had to emancipate slaves

Ulysses S. Grant's pension problem

¥     What to do with the Civil War officers?

¥     Indian Agents drawn from officers' ranks

The Peace Commission

Other problems

¥     Buffalo herds decimated

¥     Reservations on the worst lands

¥     Supreme Court released Federal Government from earlier treaties

U.S. Indian Agencies

¥     Continental Congress (1775) created Indian Agents to keep peace and prevent Indian - British cooperation

¥     Early laws intended to require permits to trade with Indians, and regulate crimes against Indians

Bureau of Indian Affairs

¥     Grew out of a system of Indian Agents, who reported to territorial governors and the War Department

¥     Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade, and ultimately (1824) Bureau of Indian Affairs in the War Department.

BIA tasks

¥     Distribute ÒCivilization FundÓ

¥     Settle White and Indian Claims

¥     Manage Indian agents

¥     Carry out both acculturation and removal agendas

 

US expansion

¥     Annexation of Texas - 1845

¥     Oregon Convention - 1848

¥     Treaty Guadalupe Hidalgo - 1848

 

 

 

Texas

¥     Nine years without reservation or agency

¥     Caddoes, Tonkawas, Penateka Comanches attacked

¥     Indian Agent Robert S. Neighbors takes them to Washita river in Indian Territory 1848

Indian Agents to 1865

¥     Increasing warfare on the plains

¥     Little ability to control white encroachment

¥     Òingratitude, low, mean cunning, cowardice, selfishness and treachery, are the characteristics of the whole raceÓ

–   Thomas Fitzpatrick

Logjam in the Federal Govt.

¥     Multiple agencies - Peace Commission, Board of Indian Commissioners, BIA, Army, Office of Indian Inspector -- all with some authority

¥     Senate and House canÕt agree on negotiated treaties

¥     Also StatesÕ rights issuesÉ

Major battles, 1855-1865

 

The Reservation Era

¥     Indian agentsÕ tasks: set up agency headquarters, build buildings, provide food and clothing, distribute tools and supplies, oversee health, spread Christianity, set up education system, suppress tribal beliefs, keep peace, prosecute criminals, protect rez from Whites, keep out alcohol, defend boundaries.

U.S. Policy and Indian social structure

¥     food given to heads of households, not tribal leaders

–   undermined traditional authority

–   changed social structure

 

Reservations

The Indian Service Schools

Vocational emphasis

¥     Euroamerican agriculture and animal husbandry

¥     Sewing, cooking, and dairy

¥     Reading, writing, math

Boarding Schools

The Language Battle

¥     Furor in Indian Service and reservations about 1887 ruling that all instruction be in English

The Loss of the Plains

¥     1865-1879

¥     1880-1894

¥     1895-1987

The Dawes Act - 1887

¥     Reservations were largely economic failures

¥     Allocation of 160 acres to households

¥     Recipients became citizens

 

Senator Henry Dawes

 

 

 

 

The 20th Century

¥    1900-1921 forced assimilation

¥    Indian New Deal

¥    1950s "termination"

¥    The present?

20th C.

1865-1900 War on the Plains

¥     Cheyenne vs. Seventh Cavalry in battle near Fort Wallace on June 26, 1867.

Land Transfers, 1865-1987

Congress's Position

Ulysses S. Grant's pension problem

 

Indian New Deal to the early 21st Century

The Meriam Commission Report

¥     " The Problem of Indian Administration" -- 1928

¥     critical of Federal policy

¥     recommended

–   making boarding schools day schools

–   allowing tribal self government

–   more property protection

–   shift from "assimilation" to "pluralism"

Meriam Commission Report

Repeal of control acts

¥     12 laws repealed that made Indians virtual prisoners on reservations

¥     Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

–  Extended voting rights, but AZ and NM restricted voting until 1948

 

Right to vote?

¥     Fought by states

¥     Ònon-taxedÓ Indians cannot voteÉ

¥     Residency requirement

¥     Federal guardianship disqualifies

¥     Poll taxes, literacy tests, etc.

¥     Gerrymandering to dilute Native vote

 

The Indian New Deal

¥     John Collier appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs

¥     Religious freedom

¥     more self-government

¥     emphasize "the study of Indian civilization, including Indian arts, crafts, skills, and traditions" (not passed)

¥     reorganize land allocation system

¥     have special court for Indian cases (not passed)

 

New Deal Policies

¥     Further allotment ended

¥     Surplus lands not homesteaded returned to tribes

¥     Tribes can make constitutions and have limited self-rule

¥     Loan funds made available for tribal projects (land, schools, etc.)

Indian Reorganization Act - 1934

¥     Econ development

¥     Self-determination

¥     Preserve tribal organization

¥     Prohibit allotments

¥     Trust period indefinite

¥     Restrict alienation

¥     Requires tribal assent

 

Opposition to the Indian New Deal

¥     Should land held by individuals go back to tribal control?

¥     Is it good that Native American cultural traditions be preserved?

¥     How much power comes under the heading "self-government"?  What limits?

¥     Balance between government assistance and government cultural reorganization?

Resistance . . .

cooperation

 

All Pueblo Council (1922)

¥     Cases in 1913

¥     19 Pueblos

¥     Responding to land encroachment

¥     Are they Christians holding land under Mexican land grants, or Indian dependencies?

 

 

 

Oklahoma collaboration

Indians in WWII

Post-WWII policy shifts

Post-WWII policy shifts

 

Trends in the Eisenhower Administration