History of Cartography

Cartography-the science and art of drawing or compiling maps and charts.

Topics for today:
I. Maps and geography in the ancient world
II. Medieval maps and charts
III. Age of discovery and exploration
IV. 18th Century to present

For online illustrations of early cartography (Mercator) check out this material from the Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center.

The use of maps is prehistoric and preliterate: marking skins, wood, bone, and cave paintings to show location of resource areas or routes.

I. Ancient World: Oldest surviving maps are Babylonian clay tablets ~2300 BC and Egyptian drawings. Used for engineering and cadastral surveys.

Greek pursuit and development of geographical knowledge ~600 BC.
Greek city of Miletus on Aegean Sea became center of geographical thought 500-600 BC.
Early view of earth as round disk surrounded by ocean
Questioned by Herodotus and Pythagoras (~6th Cent BC) they may have created first hypothesis of spherical earth.
By mid-4th Cent BC theory of spherical earth accepted by Greek scholars and scientists. ~350 BC Aristotle formulated six arguments proving sphericity.
Students of Aristotle (e.g. Dicaearchus) develop reference line system. Orientation line-orient to face the east. Contrast to current meaning.
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Ptolemy; 90-168 AD)-possible greatest ancient western scholar of geography and cartography. Studied at library in Alexandria.

Map projections and globe construction
Gazetteer of 8000 place name with latitude and longitude
8th Volume provided instructions for making maps and discussions on mathematical geography.
Produced map of known world
Ptolemy’s definition of geography as “representation in picture of the whole known world, together with the phenomena contained therein.”
Nonetheless, Ptolemy underestimated size of world. Lasting influence that affected Columbus’s world view.

Romans less interested in mathematical and theoretical. Focused on military and administrative needs. Used disk shape model of world for simplicity and ease of use. Few Roman and Greek maps survive. Fall of Rome curtailed geographic though and research. Survival of Ptolemy’s work guided the future of cartography.

II. Medieval Maps.

Little progress in early Middle Ages. Restrictions imposed by Church dogma. Tended to ignore sphericity and kept maps small and schematic. Concept of orientation to top of map. East at “top.

By 1270-1280 travels of Marco Polo stimulated new interest in exploration and mapping.

al-Idrisi (1154) constructed world map for a Christian king of Sicily. Astronomers and map makers sophisticated in use of compass and develop sexigesimal system, i.e., based on 60. 360 degree system still in use.

Oldest known map ~1137. Develop independently. Most of area mapped prior to European arrival. 16th cent. Jesuits prepare atlas from existing information.

III. Age of discovery and exploration

Rediscovery of Ptolemy’s works
Mapping new discoveries revitalizes map making as art and science
Increasing accuracy due to more exploration and better instrumentation. Better instrumentation also leads to more exploration.
Geradus Mercator-develops map of Europe (1554) based on cylindrical projection. Allowed straight line bearings. Map projection still in use today.
Elaborate nature of maps. Compass roses, cartouche (ornate or ornamental frame).
Progress in printing processes.

IV. 18th Century to present

Rise of scientific cartography based on more accurate observations. Invention of chronometer by John Harrison (~1759) increased accuracy of longitude determination.
National surveys:

New emphasis on military mapping and standardization, e.g., standard NATO symbols for military maps and charts.
Satellite observation platforms.

Now in the era of computer mapping and future of paper map is questioned by some cartographers.

Created Sep 99. Revised 18 Jan 02.