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Barriers to AccessAccess can be thought of synonymously as use (1). Interchanging the terms access and use makes sense because barriers to access and use always combine aspects of individual choices with circumstances imposed on the individual. Both types of barrier have the same result. Cost of access is the most obvious barrier: the lack of means to acquire the necessary physical equipment and service required to use the Internet. On a broader level, there are psychological barriers to access, including language and literacy issues and comfort concerns. Content, is another far-reaching obstacle to effective adoption of the Internet, and is often cited as a reason for not acquiring access. Cost as a BarrierA useful idea to remember concerning the cost of Internet service and related equipment as a barrier is that cost by itself is not a uniquely determining factor. It is not a brick wall separating some users from access while permitting it to others. As experience with the cable TV industry suggests (2), individuals will find a way to connect at a given price if the product is seen as valuable. This being said, cost is still the most frequently cited reason for not having a computer and Internet access at home and the second most commonly reason cited for not having access anywhere. In a survey conducted in Texas in the spring of 2000, 57.6% of users stated the reason for not accessing the Internet from home was lack of a computer, while another 31% said that with the Internet, either their phone bill or their ISP bill would be too high (3). Perhaps more striking is that cost is the most common reason cited for discontinuing Internet service (4). Internet access varies greatly across demographic groups, but a factor that all groups share is the cost relationship: as income goes up, rate of use also goes up dramatically (5). At the same time, the groups that do not use the Internet still see it as potentially valuable. A survey conducted in the spring of 2000 (6) showed that many underprivileged citizens who do not have access feel that they are missing out on valuable services. Above and beyond the issues associated with acquiring a computer and some type of Internet access, one must also consider the speed of connection. Although an individual may have access to a computer, it may be too old or slow to use for Internet access. Similarly, the type of connection available at a low cost (dial-up, which presumes a telephone line) is a vastly different service than broadband access. Two individuals that both technically have access may enjoy vastly different experiences if one is using a refurbished computer with a 286 processor and dial-up and the other has a 1 GHz processor accessing a T-1 line. For some discussions, it may be necessary to stratify "access" into multiple levels to capture the whole picture. A similar issue is the cost of access as a function of time. Users who are equipped with current technology at present, such as a CTC that has recently purchased hardware with a one-time grant, may not be able to maintain current technology as the rest of the online community evolves. As computers speed up, their obsolete equipment will place the center into a lower stratum of access. Language and Literacy as BarriersBeyond the financial considerations of getting online, a minimum amount of human capital is needed. The individual must first be able to understand the information presented by the medium. This requirement involves literacy as well as language requirements. Given that 22% of adults in the United States do not read proficiently (7), it is clear that many will be excluded from access solely because the content is only available as text. Children similarly have a need for content that does not require high-level literacy. Although many parents see typing and reading improvement as major potential benefits of Internet use for their children, few sites offer substantial content of this sort (8). Just as the Internet is dominated by text, that text is predominantly English. A staggering 80% of all sites and traffic use the English language (9). The non-English content on the web is mostly written in foreign countries, so it offers no relevant, local content to residents of the United States. Non-native speakers may be discouraged by interactive domains such as chat-rooms, which often employ highly idiomatic English. On the bright side, the economics of the web are more favorable for publishing in multiple languages than the economics of print. The negligible cost of "physical" publishing allows the portal Yahoo! to offer homepages for 23 different countries accessible from its United States home page (10). There is an incremental cost of translating the content into the desired language, but the marginal cost of disseminating prepared information to another user is zero. The abundance of English content would not be a problem if enough relevant content were also available in a second language (11). Comfort as a BarrierLanguage and literacy affect how comfortable a user is with the available content, but a more global factor is the user’s comfort level in the online environment itself. Comfort with technology can be thought of in the traditional sense, as one might feel comfortable in a place or comfortable performing a task, such as creating a file. But comfort is also a property of the medium itself, where privacy and security concerns can deter would-be users. Almost half of respondents in a Seattle survey did not feel that online financial transactions were secure (12). In a different survey, a plurality of 40% of those surveyed indicated they were "very wary" about confidentiality on the Internet (13). Beyond the concern over financial transactions, some of this discomfort stems from a widespread belief that companies take advantage of people with information acquired over the Internet. Children’s access is largely dependent on their parents’ comfort with the medium. The most prevalent concern of parents is the availability of indecent material online. Parents worry that software meant to filter content automatically is inadequate and can be circumvented by a determined child (14). Most parents, then, rely on their own watchfulness and the assumed supervision of teachers and librarians at sites outside the home where children access the Internet. The physical location of the computer presents another aspect of comfort and access that is of particular relevance to those interested in public access. As income level rises, access patterns shift out of libraries and other public areas and into the home and workplace. The shift may indicate a preference to use the Internet and computers at home instead of public centers. Reasons for this preference could be limits on use at public centers, such as time limits or restrictions on the types of activities permitted. Though preference for using technology at home is basically a dimension of cost, it implies that the structure of a public center is will affect the type and number of people who use its resources. Content as a BarrierContent is another paradoxical dimension of computer access that throws up barriers while opening new opportunities. Content, in the age of computer technology, is all the information one comes into contact with on a computer screen. This content can be derived from a wide spectrum of sources. On one end of the spectrum, content can be deliberately created for a specific user, as in the case of software developed for commercial purposes. Content can also be created by individuals as a mode of self-expression and representation. The significance of content cannot be overstated - it serves as a user’s orientation to computing and the Internet. Content in personal computing software can be exclusive, and is often restricted in its capacity to be shared. Internet content, on the other hand, is categorically different in nature from software content that is designed and packaged for individual users. Internet content has been characterized as information that is widely available and customizable by the user. Internet content flows from many to many, allows for interaction among users, and enables users to become producers of information (15). Creators of content include everyone: the publishers of education materials, the web designers for a major music label, and a state’s department of motor vehicles. Increasingly, individuals are also taking the initiative to create personal web pages, video games, etc. What individuals create reflects their interpretation of the world. The significance of these examples lies in the purpose of the content. The music company is looking for the consumer, the DMV is serving the citizen, and the individual who designs her own web page is creating a reflection of self for inclusion in a larger, virtual community. Content is also a cost issue in itself. Software and the complementary hardware that is useful to individuals whose native language is other than English or to individuals with physical disabilities can particularly expensive. The price is not only a barrier for the individual user but for the organization or institution that provides access to users that may otherwise not have it. Other cost issues include sites that charge for information, particularly archived information, such as the New York Times. Examination of access to computer content must begin with several important questions:
This is not an exhaustive set of questions, but rather a starting point for understanding the significance of content in a society increasingly dependent on personal computer and Internet resources as tools of communication. |
Notes
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