Sheila Allee

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Because of their activism, ethnic Canadians like Ruggiero felt threatened about her own language and culture.

So it was only natural that when she studied psychology, her interests would turn to attitudes about discrimination.

As she puts it, she's "trying to determine when people of low status groups will claim discrimination."

Calling it a "robust phenomenon," Ruggiero says her research shows that people in low status groups downplay discrimination against themselves. In other words, they are reluctant to claim personal discrimination, but readily concede that others of their gender or race are targets of discrimination.

She and other psychologists call this phenomenon the "personal/group discrimination discrepancy." And it contradicts the popular belief that women and people of color are quick to play the gender or race card when circumstances go against them.

She cites as an example statements by Gen. Colin Powell during an interview with talk show host Larry King, "I always viewed racism as not my problem," Powell said. "It's someone else's problem."

"Women are reluctant to claim discrimination because it's socially undesirable," Ruggiero said. "People don't like complainers."

There are other good reasons for women and people of color to avoid claims of discrimination. Psychologically, it represents a loss of control, lower social self-esteem and a decrease in personal well being. In some cases, she said, it also can be a health hazard, leading to higher blood pressure.

Women and members of other low status groups need information about how others in their immediate environment are being treated before they can assess the likelihood of discrimination.

Ruggiero bases her findings on a study done with her graduate students Jennifer Steele, David Marx and Anne Hwang. In that study, a group of undergraduate women were asked to take a creativity test that would show how successful they would be in their future careers.

The test involved listing the possible uses of five different items. When they finished the test, the women were asked to give it to a male graduate student for grading.

While waiting for their grades, the women were approached by another female participant who was a "confederate" or a plant. The confederate suggested that the male graduate student has been known to grade women differently from men.

When the women then received a "D" on their tests, they were asked to indicate their first name and the grade they received on a form for record-keeping purposes. But on the same form were the grades of the last woman and man whose tests were evaluated by the same male graduate student.

The research showed that the women in the study tended to blame themselves for their failure on the test, unless they knew that another woman received a "D", or that a man received an "A" from the same male graduate student. If they had such knowledge, they were more likely to blame discrimination.

"Before a group can improve their status, they have to know their circumstance," Ruggiero said. "Women need information about how others are being treated and information on the probability for discrimination."

Results of this research were published in the October issue of the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin from the University of Iowa.

In another study with students Jason Mitchell, David Marx and Melanie Lorenzo, along with associate professor Dr. Nancy Krieger of the Harvard School of Public Health, women were asked to take word association tests on a computer. This research used more implicit or indirect measures of experience with discrimination that could not be distorted.

These tests paint a different picture.

This study, published in the November issue of Psychological Science, the official journal of the American Psychological Society, shows that women actually do perceive discrimination against themselves just as they perceive it against their gender group. Yet, the perception that they are personally discriminated against may only appear when it is implicitly measured.

Ruggiero said her research has important implications. For example, those women and people of color who do appear to have personal experience with discrimination according to implicit or indirect measures -- but who do not mention this when they are asked about it directly -- might be at greater risk for psychological and physical health problems.

Consequently, it may be helpful to point out this contradiction to them under appropriate circumstances so they can come to terms with discrimination.